Doing Teacher Research [form inquiry to unerstanding]{Donald Freeman} (ตอนที่ 2)

ตอนที่ 2

them specific tasks such as "Count the number of adjectives in your descrip-
tions." This activity has two purposes. It will prepare students to write about
their own progress in Learning Memo #3 and it will help me when I sit down
; to analyze the data I have gathered because a lot of information will already be
coded. The third Learning Memo consists of five questions and is completed in
class on green slips of paper. I present the guiding questions and allow time for
them to write their answers before moving on to the next question. These are
i the questions:
Z A. Do you see any progress in your writing? If so, of which kind?
_ If not, why?
y B. Would you like to continue receiving the same type of teacher
E feedback? Why?
C. Look over your 10 writing pieces (two drafts for each of the five
i assignments). Which is your best piece? Why?
t D. Select the best writers in your group and rank them.
E. What would you like to write about next?
Two students are absent for the entire week and therefore do not take part in
the memo activity. The answers to question D from the other 11 students appear On discipline in
. in Figure 6.5 and 6.6 (page 139), where I discuss data analysis. Before answering, research design,
students have to read one another’s best pieces, as chosen by the author. I split the SGS Chapiéf l.
; class in two groups in order to reduce the time spent on reading classmates’ works. PP- 8*0 and
It is no accident that Camille and Shimoko are in different groups. They were the Chapter 4·
i only two students receiving feedback on form and I wish to find out how readers pp' 55-51
see their writings as compared to the rest. I can hardly believe that the research
project is almost over. I feel relieved for I just have to wrap up my analysis.
6. What do my data tell me?
i Although I will stick to the facts and try to be as objective as I can, I think a bet-
; ter wording for this question would be "What meanings _can I construct based
on the information I collected?" -
i Nine of the 13 students wrote more in the fifth assignment, the "summer
vacation” narrative, than in any of their previous work. The other four students
wrote more in the "Who are you?" essay. Since the number of words did not
increase regularly according to the sequence in which the assignments were .
given, I cannot use cumulative practice or time in the course as a way to explain
the difference in_ the quantity of writing between the first and last pieces.
Therefore, I am led to believe that students wrote more in the last narrative sim-
ply because it was the only topic which they felt was their own. The "Who are
you?" essay was probably the topic they saw as the most personal, in spite of
the fact that I was the one to assign it. Ten students wrote less in the "m0rning
routine” narrative and I think this might have been the result of poor pre-writ-
ing activities. In contrast, there was extensive work done before they wrote the
“Who are you?" essay.
I
l I .
g Tsacimn Fannaack ON STUDENT Wairimo • 135
‘- Y ` .i=--? `.:.- 2 `--‘`2 e‘.. *- ‘-ee: `*‘— .`‘——-—- ` `·----- i .‘:. -» ·--- *2Y- `'·- ``·_ T .§ Q f .._‘ _` _'.=i, _iii ‘ ‘``.

Figure 6.3: Quantity af studarits’ writing in number af wards
Student Special Morning Who Are Calendar Summer
Object Routine You? Picture Vacation i
Martha 290 158 335 363 431
Helen 312 168 346 337 392
Camitle 133 129 270 247 661 i
Myfihes 138 226 593 356 497 i
Juliana 257 315 603 416 624
_ James n/a 218 380 300 517 Stu:
Nadine 225 126 356 480 600 gf?
,1 1 cuec.e 1 1 t 1 .ce. 1, I ueuu 1 ,1, 1 ccue. 1, I list
Andrezza 78 63 291 278 325 are
Antonio 193 113 452 346 293 “ the.
. ,1, 1 ..- . 1,,1 ., ,1 . .1 .... . ,1 11 r....... ......,1 1 , ............ 1 1 .. 1. .... .- 1 1 ,..1- ..
Pedro 109 41 271 236 345 ` in (
Sonia 179 103 452 n/a 419 sioi
Shimoko 227 - 159 492 303 370 hgs
,1 ,.1 ..,, 1 ..11.. 1111.1... 111 .1. ,11111.1.. 1,1 1111 1 ...1.. 1,,1 1 ...1. .,11, . .... .. ., 1 L { C
. Rob H/es 455 700 418 880 Oi
` ' ct class late) l P
1 ..... 1 ,1. ____ 1 .......... ,1 ,,_, 11 ..1. 1_ are
l X (
5
The following table ranks students according to how much they wrote, as _
judged by the total number of words, over the nine-week period. i Hg']
i .
t§iiieiiE: I ztiaorf 2.“Juiianam_s. Quik [ Mirinés uéienm
Bottom Two: 12. Andrezza 13. Pedro I
11. , 1 1 .. . 1, . ..,.. ,.11.. .. .... ,r111,,11... .. .... . 1 ,..1. ... .,-. 1.... .. 1, . .. .....
The top five writers all chose to receive feedback on content. So did the bottom j
two. Therefore, I cannot confirm that if the teacher provides feedback on form, .
the students will necessarily write less, or vice versa. I should point out that
Rob, who is ranked first, registered late for the class and only joined the group
at the beginning of the third week. Maybe he just enjoys writing and as a result
was able to produce more words in four assignments than many of his class-
mates generated over five pieces. -
In the last week of my project, I asked students tojudge their own writings
because I wanted to look for similarities and differences between the way they
evaluated their work and the way I did it. Therefore, I distributed grading
sheets, taken from Houghton Mifflin English 8—Teoc!aer’s Edition, which had
seven categories. I introduced minor changes to the sheets so that they would
suit the needs of these junior and senior students. The categories on the grading
sheets were:
I_36 • Dome TEACHER-RESEARCHI: FROM INQUIRY. TO UNDERST`z\NDING 1

I
I
FOR DESCRIPTIONS FOR NARRATIVES
Capitalization Capitalization
; Punctuation Punctuation
Spelling Spelling
Five senses used gp Beginning is interesting
l Details are organized Ending is interesting
Clear picture ot subject Details are included
Use of exact words lise of linking words
Students read their papers and assigned a grade for each one ofthe categories. The
grades ranged from l to 5, depending on whether the paper was: poor : 1; weak
: 2; good = 3; very good : 4; excellent : 5. Students used the description check-
list when evaluating the “Special Obiect," the " Calendar Picture," and the “Wl1o
are you?" pieces. The narrative checklist was used for the "l\/Iorning Routine" and
the “Summer Vacation" assignments. Since they looked at both drafts of each _
assignment, this activity generated a huge amount of data, which I managed to put _
in one single grid, seen in Figure 6.4. Table 1, on the left side, is a condensed ver—
sion of the grid; it contains only the number of excelients (5) each student gave to
his or her writing pieces. Table 2, on the right side, shows the grades I assigned to
their papers using a 0—1O scale divided into two parts: 6 points for content and 4
_ points for form. The pieces are labeled as follows: SO: Special Object; IVE Who
- are You?; ;CP: Calendar Picture; MR: Morning Routine; S IE Summer Vacation: An
, X on the table means that the student did not hand in the assignment.
figure 5.4: Slllllmnfy BI SIZF.ltlEI‘lI FBPSIIS l8&GllBl‘·&.lSSlgIIBil gl’&llBS I
¥ Table #1: Table #2:
Writing Students assess own work Teacher assesses students
Assignment Number of excellents given work on a 0-10 scale
to pieces (6 2 content; 4 = form)
Students SO MR WY CP SV SO Il/IR WY CP SV
Martha O O O 6 2 9 6 6 5 3 I
Helen 1 _ 1 O O 2 6 6 3 4 7
Camille O O O O O 3 6 5 6 6
. .7. ....7 .... ir. ... .—.-- ---- - -- - . . 77?..77. ..... »...?-§—..--. .-.-.7) rrrr . ..,..?.- ._. it cri
ivlyrthes 1 O p O 2 9 Q 8 8 8 {
Juliana 3g 3 2 2 9 6 8 6 5
_Jarnes X 2 2 4 4 X 9 5 5 7
Nadine lo- O O O O 9 6 6 5 6 "
Andrezza 1 3 2g; 6 1 3 3 4 7 6 -
Antonio 2 6‘ 2 3 2 6 6 5 4
,,.,,7 me., ...,t, . .7.. . -,. .,.. _.,2§,m_s ._.. -... _. ... .... .,...., t-
Pedro 1 O __ ppGpp, ,3 3 3, 2 4
Sonia O IO O X 1 6 3 6 X 8 i
».r)r.?7 V........_.“.-._ .?... . .... . . r ..r.7 ) .7. ..i-. ..-- --.---··.r ~7r»ar .- ... ....-.
Shimoko 3 gl; O 6--- 6 p6 6 7
Rob X 1 gi; 3 2 X p9 8 6 9
Tencnnn Fseosnck ON STUDENT Wartime • 137
. _ - ''‘‘ -. -:.¥-‘[Q.. t-'_ _.i=__ . X.--ZJ --r:..;·.;j .4;. ;;_;_;},e_ .1._,g.V;.,T__::_%__ :j_ _.__ . ,_.}_.;.;..:. . ._I_ _.
it ‘..· -4 . - lg ··.i i?"‘j`;§.s·-r-;=‘. .‘.‘. ...· fi; =}5;l‘-QA ii; ‘ I- .- -. .;- *1 ‘- - . · _; ;;; i if ‘_ i-·, _.‘- -=_-- W—{‘l.ZZiFf

Top Three Writers i Figiil"
Students’ view of own work 1. Antonio 2. Juliana and Andrezza 3. James
Teachers view of students’ work 1. i\/lyrthes 2. Rolo 3. Juliana and Martha ; _
The figure shows that the top three writers, according to the students’ view gf Q
\/Billard here their own work, were Antonio, juliana and Andrezza, and james. According IO i
Ofrgpg gn my view of their work, the top three writers were Myrthes, Rob, and juliana and
excellent Martha. I still have doubts about why Antonio, the student who gave himself the i
example of highest grades in the group, did not appear on my list. Likewise, Myrthes, tht;
l°ll'ST·0Vd9V V6‘·"5U$ student to get the highest grades in my evaluation, did not appear on the stu-
S€CO“d`9"d‘°`l dents’ list. Maybe it is- a reflection of the fact we were using different scale;
pBrCBpIl°nS‘ Maybe it is a matter of individual standards about what excellence in writing I
means and what my expectations as a teacher are. I use the expression “writei-S
with highest grades" deliberately, because I am not confident enough to call
them the best writers in the group. IX/'hat is intriguing, however, is that if I did
not have access to these data, and someone asked me to name the top writers in `
the class, I would say Antonio, juliana, and Rob.
Actually, I don’t think I would change my answer even after consulting the
tables. I wonder if students’ views of themselves or their work might have a A
greater influence on me than what my careful, almost mathematical, analysis of I juli;
form and content tells me. It might even be that I end up showing how I perceive Q (jan
my stuclents’ work and this in turn makes them have a better image of them- cnt}
selves. These are scary thoughts, as a teacher! But these speculations might lead may
me into some interesting research in the future. A more down—to-earth explana~ i this
tion for the difference in our perceptions is that my O to 10 grading scale does i
not provide, for whatever reason, for a close account of what the majority of stu- [ fjgurr
dents think. This becomes more evident ifl add another element, students’ views
of their peers’.work, to the picture. I was able to get this information when stu- {
dents completed the third Learning Memo. They worked in two groups to read
their peers’ best writing pieces, and they were not required to resort to any scale [
when voting for the best writers in the group. i l
These answers on who was the " best writer" in the group allowed me to build ,
On the a sociogram for the group. These sociograms are reported in ta ble form, in Figure
Construction 6.5, and in diagrammatic form, in Figure 6.6. To develop the sociogram, I need
Of 3 Socgogmm, to arrive at a total number of points for each student that represents the number
gag Appendix Q_ of times he or she was nominated "best” writer by peers in his or her group. I cal-
culated these total scores as follows. I took the number of times the person was
chosen as #1, as the best writer, and multiplied it by three; then the number of _
times that student was chosen as #2, as second best writer, and I multiplied this `
number by two; and then the number of times he or she was chosen as #3, as
third~best writer, and I multiplied that number by one. Finally, I added all of these
l scores together to get a total score for that student. In the case of Antonio, for
example, his total score, 9, was constructed as follows: (2 x 3) + (1 x 2) + (1 x 1)
: 6 + 2 + 1 : 9 or (2 x "best writer” [3 points]) + (1 x “second-best writer” [2
points]) + (1x "thirci~best writer" [1 pointl) = 9 points total score. i
B • DOING TEACHE-lR—RESEARCH: FROM IINQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING

{
Figure 5.5: 3es§egram results (table): Students pereeptiens
A ef whs is the best writer in sash group
; Students Number of times chosen ss: Total number
2 ssbsbss t s tt? ss s s s #3 s ss bsss sefrsefrtsé
s€E?9'Esdsss s,s.s `..s,. s.._. ss s s ss _____
P eersssss bssb ss? ss bbbb ts ss sssbb it sssss s sss ssss
· bsssbsssss ss
l Mttiress Q bssssss s1 ss Ls 3 ssssss s
’ sseerssssss ssss ssssse ssss s ss ss ss ssa ss ss ssss ss ssss s ssss sss
T · atesrseessssts sssss s s t sssss ssss 8 ss
servers ss ss ssss s s s ss ssss s ss ssss
ss s ssss ssss ss es
A Nssttssssss ssss ss9 ssss s ssssss s s9ssssQs ssss 9 ssss ssss ss
A JFTT‘?$ ssss s sssssss si ssss ss ssss sssssslssfi sssss ss s
Essssssssss Qs s ss s ss ss sssss 9 ssss s
isteeessssésssssssssssssssssssssssssssss ssss s we ss ssss ss
Meiresss sssssssss ss ssss ssss sssss s s ssssss ss ssssss s ssss s
As you can see, Antonio is considered the best writer in group A and Rob,
juliana, and Shimoko are considered the best writers in group B. Since both
- Camille and Shimoko appear among the top three writers, each one in a differ-
ent group, one possible interpretation is that correct spelling and proper gram-
Hlftlf have 3 gI€Ht€I i1T1p'EiCf 01} p€€IS than fl'l€Y l'lHV€ OH 1116 GS E1 t€3.Ci1E!s‘. SO[1“1€llO\V
§ this statement seems risky, but it is based on the information I collected.
Hgere 6.6: Sssiugram results (diagram):
Students perceptions nf who is the best writer
wee ast me erst wsirem in vous erouP?"
E
r s ss ss #2 ss ssss GROUP B
i GROUP A #3 ··=¤ ·········· .... ,_
J V ' I- :,° :.•E(gD!NE .·°'•,·jAME%••·.°
PEDR’O'¢ ' `°=("·- *‘ V F P ’E se': = .
’ MYRTHES YV} ;···' ’ \ E
· ir J _ Semzoko " ‘ ’ ·
\ [ ._ _ in . Roe
I \ { { JI `_
’ \ f n ·'»_ •,••_ I', : i •._• \ _
I Anqmyzza ··-e ——- -5- CAMILLEV EARLIA _____ MJNA :
i `-_A ···. __ __,_ \ 4 s I
5 s., ‘ in u
i i Teaornaa Fneoeecx ON STUDENT Waitiwo • 139
·- ` __,¤ -. * .-'. __ii_·r i`_i '’r_ ----


The sociogram data also call attention to Nadine. She is an isolate, whom no
one chose as best writer in the sociogram for group B. Nadine is also one of only
two students to give herself no excelients on any of the five writings, and I ranked
her fifth according to my assessment on the O to 10 scale. Based on these facts,
I would say that both she and her classmates have a poor image of her work.
When I asked students to select their best work over the nine—week period,
their answers confirmed what other data, such as number of words per assign-
ment (Figure 6.3) and number of excellents given to each piece (Figure 6.4), had
already told me. Seven out of 11 students chose the second draft of their
KSUIHIHBI Vacation" narratives as their best writing pieces. Only three people,
juliana, Pedro, and Rob, did not see progress in their writing. Since I do not
have enough information to explain this finding, I will refrain from unground—
ed speculation. All the same, Rob offers an insight on awareness of progress in
writing when he notes in his third Learning Meino, “In general, I don’t really M.
know what I am doing wrong.” Camille adds, "Yes, there was some progress digtyi
because my content got better. " Please remember that Camille had feedback on assjgl
form all along. My reply to these comments is "I need to do more research on
students’ awareness of their progress, if that’s at all feasible.”
Figure 6:1*; Summaries ef students’ preferences fer style nf teacher feedback
(nn fnrm cr nn content) at the end uf the term
PREFERENCES BY STUDENT _ ·
STUDENTS: What type of feedback Would you if not, which
did you get for assign- like to continue one now? 7
ments 3, 4, and 5? getting it? I
Summary Martha content no both J
gf fmdmgg _... ,,, ,.,. .. .... -, .... .,,,,. .. .,-7 ,.1,, .,,._,-.r ,7-. ..,__...,..., rrr. ,,7,. ...,,-
by Studgnt Helen · content X _
Camille form no content i
Nlyrthes content no ‘ both i
Juliana content yes i
James content no form If I I
I -.-77 rr..r 7-77.... ..... 7777, .7 ,..... -.?.--M77,7 .... *.-.4 7 777. ......._.- ..7. 7 7777.7~s_-.T..-~7777.....7i. . —.7-.-- 777777.7..7-.-
Nadine content X with
Andrezza content yes
Antonio content yes 7‘ “
Pedro content X _ E Si;
. ..... -..,,,4*7 7.,.,. -.- .,i777,,...-....... .... 7,, 7 ..-...-... ..., ,,.,i, ,7,. ._..-... ..,,,,, *,77. .-..--..+7 wt- ...,,,7.7.,.r..- 0
Sonia content X mite
Shimoko form no both Bil 0
Roh content no form Subh
(X means that the student was absent or did not answer. “Both" was not offered. as an option) ‘
• Domo TEACHER-RESEARCH: Fnoni INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING
Y .... ..‘.; -
~. i

PREFERENCE BY TYPE OF TEACHER FEEDBACK
(ON FORM OR ON CONTENT)
Choices Number of Choices Number of
4 students students
· From content to both 2 Content only 4 Summaiy
-_ ..M, ,..,.aa.,._. ,r......_.. ---........ m,...2.un..,sC..--.. .._-- .... -...- .,.. Of
, From form to both 1 Form only 2 Ccrrecticn
I From content to form 2 Both form and content 3 DFETBYGDCG
From form to content 1
Continue with content 3 Content (with & without form) 7
Continue with form O Form (with & without content) 5
Most interestingly, by the end of the proiect, students expressed a more even
distribution about the type of teacher feedback they wanted to receive on their
assignments. _
"Content I think is important, but grammar is what I really need to
work on,"——Rob
“I want to have the "red" way [on form] which is the grammar mis-
take. I changed my mind because the "black" {on content] way did—
n’t help me, so its hard for me [to see] my spelling errors.”—Nadine
"I would like to keep the comments as feedback. It helped me because ·
it let me know how the reader feels about what he’s reading.”—
Andrezza _
“I would prefer the type you put the little comments . . . based on
those questions we try to improve the writing.”—Ant6nio _
"i would like to change because to see which one is better the gram-
mar or the content you need to try both."—Camille
A “I want to change to grammar and spell[ing] because my manner of
putting in content is better than before."—]ames
Z If I had the energy, this would be the appropriate time for me to start a new
_ research project with the same group so I could compare the results of this study
T with those at the end of another two-month period.
_ 7. What were some of my important mistakes?
g I say “important," because I made a lot of mistakes. Some of them. turned out _
` to be beneficial, showing me a new direction, for instance. Others I would def-
I initely tty to avoid, if I were to investigate the same topic again. I learned from
all of them, which is why they were important. I have listed them below with
subheadings. `
F · TEACHER FEEDBACK ON STUDENT WRITING • 141
it ‘`-‘i j ‘ee.tt c..t. i.’.ii -‘iiit T 5
E ./j f -- ;.-_

i
5 Focus on students: I would focus my research question even more
on my students. I believe that my inquiry was still too teacher-cen-
tered. Moreover, I would work with my research partners for at -
least a week before finalizing my research plan. I can choose the
topic in advance, and I still think it should be something I enjoy,
like writing. However, if I want to call my students “research part-
ners,” they should have some influence on the shaping of my
question. If, for example, I were to concentrate on needs assess-
ment for the first week of the class, I would certainly have quite a
few questions to choose from.
H The ii-zteizsection of teaching skills and doirzg1’esem‘ch.· Also relat-
ed to the research question, I should have a better understanding
of "content” and “form" to clearly define the meanings attached
to these words in light of my research question. As much as
possible, I was consistent in the types of feedback I offered stu-
dents. However, this meant I was not able to incorporate changes
in the way I did things as I came to grasp certain ideas about cor-
rection. So I was perfecting 1ny skills in correcting students’ writ-
ing even as I was s_tudying the impact of those skills on my stu-
dents. This is a good instance of working at the hyphen of teach-
ing and doing research.
¤ Gathering data: I could improve the questionnaire I handed out
to teachers by having possible answers added aftereach question.
This might help the people filling out the questionnaire without
guiding them in a particular direction. I incorporated what I learned
from this mistake in the questionnaire I handed out to students,
which you can see in comparing the two versions on pages 131-132. -
OD TDD ¤ Ongoing data analysis: I could easily have responded to the ques-
IFDDDVKGDCG DI tion "\lUhat happened?” (#5) several times during the nine-week
d¤l¤§ ¥°lF$T·CU'€ period, and not only at the very end of the project. While I did write
BDGIYSGSZ $98 journal entries and lesson plans throughout the research process, I I
$50 Ch3Dt€*' 4, did not analyze them on an ongoing basis. Thus it was a big job to
DD- 82·84· go back and mesh them into one analysis at the end of the project. _
5 Asking "why?” I would ask myself "why?” on a regular basis ·
i because it throws me off balance, which I see as a major step lead- g
ing to growth. I need to recognize that it can do the same for stu- lk?
dents, though I could ask them "why?" in a less aggressive manner l ilu
than I did. I am sure I intimidated my students at the very begin- j did
ning of the project, and in some cases it took a lot of time and g
effort to regain their trust. | FR'
. . Dc
I Reading related literature: Although I consulted books on writing i AS
and research, both in preparing for and in doing the project, in the WG
future I would read even more literature related to writing than I b
did this time. Prom the standpoint of several years later, I can see, dec
for instance, that work like the following would have made a dif- BI
ference to my thinking: Peter Elbow’s discussion in Writing with l jlbl
Power (1981) of the doubting and the believing games in respond- i EDU
_ ing to writing, Tom Rornano’s Clearing the Way: Worlds-rg with i Th
I
[42 • Donuo TEACHER-RESEARCH: FROM INQUIRY TO UNDERSTi\NDING

I
I Teenage Writers (1987), in which he talks about grading and eval-
uation; Donald Murray’s ideas about conferencing in teaching
writing, in A l,Vriter Teac/aes Wiritiizg (1985); and Lucy Call€-* o '
Qi. ` ` " ` iiiii i A ‘
: O ii` ` l- .. ...._ _
i - é ig ‘ ·=_-= _ DATA ANALYSIS _ _‘__
_ % . _-‘‘ ii
6 ‘ ` . .... . __ ‘‘=‘i "
l rirr
v
F ( Eoing public can reorient attitudes—your own as a teacher who is research-
i ing teaching as well as those of others who encounter your work. On a
basic level, being public about what you are doing can uncover different dimen- ` ‘‘‘-i ‘
5 sions within teaching and learning situations that might appear problematic on _ _
; . . . · Kristen Frylmg
the surface. The teacher in the following account consciously used the.teacher—
research process to illuminate a situation that, in the usual life of school, might
have been difficult because it was out—of—the-ordinary. When Kristen Fryling
began teaching Spanish to sixth graders, ages 11 and 12, in a rural elementary _
i · Gomo PUBLIC • 147
-`¤ VT" j-Q}? ·.:‘ `· :.·i‘ I i*]ffi··*fi -{ --.. iii
:31-_.{i% · " _ _ _ g;:Z_·f€'i;;;··.__..3·-.M:.i‘¥·.=:.e·:i·;l.;·-ir:-.t’··:..;:.·.t; " .· :· ` " iT' r. 1. -5;-_.·_,._-j· it · fi", " .
-·‘*=. ‘ l

I
l
school whose students were almost entirely English—speaking, she found a Spanish- cf
speaking boy had recently joined the class. As the teacher, Fryling wanted to figt Chic.
ure out how she might draw the boy into the Spanish class, to recognize his lan- Obccj
guage expertise and thus to give him a role with his classmates that he would 5 cvgclc
not have as an ESL learner. As a teacher-researcher, Fryling was intrigued by and
how this role would evolve and be defined throughout the term. However, shc l {ccc}
had not counted on the attention her teachenresearch would generate among l Chic
other teachers and staff members. i pfcc,
Account 7.1A: Kristen Fryling, "Chico’s story"
Wlhen I began teaching Spanish at an elementary school, I discovered =
that a twelve-year-old boy had just arrived from Venezuela. This boy,
whom I will call Chico, would be in one of the sixth-grade beginning
Spanish classes which I was scheduled to visit twice a week for 45
minutes. \Vhen I got to the school just after Christmas vacation, I
heard the news of the new arrival from two of the sixth graders. Ned ‘
and Zev approached me that day and said, “ Guess what? There’s a =
new kid in our school and he speaks only Spanish; no Engiish!”
"I asked him in Spanish what his name was, and he said, ‘Chico,"’
Zev continued. "So, using Spanish works?" I replied, somewhat j ·
facetiousiy. l
After hearing the news, I was excited to think that we would have a I
native speaker who was the same age as the children in my Spanish i
. classes. However, I also wondered how he might react to my te‘ach» Q
ing Spanish to his classmates. I had heard stories from other sea~ Q
soned teachers who had been often corrected by native speakers l
while conducting Spanish classes. My questions began . . .Would my j
accent sound strange or terrible to him? Wotild he be bored by what i
seemed to him the slow pace of the class? \Vould he be intimidated j
by his Engiisirspeaking peers? Vilould he not want to stand out or be
different from them? Wlhat would happen in Spanish class when he
was there? How would his classmates respond to him if he took on ,
the role of peer teacher? *
So the inquiry was born: How do I incorporate this native Spanish l
speaker into my teaching of the class? At several points, I wondered
if Chico was even going to he in my class because the ESL teachers
were taking him out a lot in an attempt to ease his adjustment to the
school. But I held the hope that he would want to assist me in teach-
ing Spanish, and indeed, over time, he began to help out a little more j
each lesson. The research question soon emerged: Wlaat is going on , pry]
when Chico is taking the role of teacher with his peers in the novice COD
Spanish class? And how does his role evolve? Scht
In her account, Fryling makes public the arrival of a new student in the not
school, thus opening up the possibilities in this commonplace event. Her mus- inqi
ings and wonderings show how her inquiry took shape as she contemplated the itse
role that Chico might play in her Spanish classes. By publicly discussing the Fry
issues she faced as Chico entered her class, Fryling establishes the event as one as t
that can be investigated and understood, rather than siinply assumed to he part I sho
l
8 • Donsio TEACI-iER—RESEARCH: FROM INQUIRY TO UNoens’rANoiNc: `
I
j ..__.· ‘ 1 ii -eg,.-ni _==_ e T; " -` T * "- U - ei { ‘‘—‘· gif. r lj . · ,- r

of the status-quo of school life. The balance of her case study examines how
Chico’s role evolved in her class over a three—month period, as he moved from
Observer to interlocutor to teacher of his peers. Fryling views this movement as
evidence of his successful integration into the social fabric of the sixth grade,
_ and indeed the school, as Chico assumed the publicly recognized role of peer
teacher. She concludes her account with an excerpt from an interview with
Chico `ust before the end of her teachin , in which she comments on "Chico’s
3 l g
preoccupation with his present role as a Spanish teacher. "
Account 7.1B: Kristen Fryiing, "Chic0’s story"
As the other sixth—gracle students review the lesson, I ask Chico if
there is a better way we can use the posters of greetings we made.
These posters show simple vocabulary for greeting and leave—tal ._-·—_=-_- ;_.jy;. -,.._‘ ‘-i? t‘‘i·t -"-:;
j,_- { `‘-. ‘ `· =-. &;-e;;Z;£i;ig3--,?-=-i_- ‘-·_ TZ_.=‘-i. ·‘=· e 2- ‘i·· writ: P--. i ; t__.. ·. e·,, ;.1·i -—‘‘i sz-

' ‘=-‘ What is the author trying to accomplish? `What is her purpose?
B Woiild you call this poem a “research account”? Why or
why not?
2B. As cz research report: Find a different audience. This time introduce
the reading as “a teacher—research report from an ESL classroom?
After reading the poem aloud to them, ask members of this audience
how they respond to it and why. iii
. . . . d i
H What did you learn about the particular research situation? tl;
B How would you summarize the researcher’s findings. _ igsn
¤ What is the author as a _teacher—researcher aiming to accomplish? an
Yi/hat is her purpose? gm
ai
B Would you describe this as a "research account”? Why or
why not? 1-
in your discussion, be careful and consistent in referring to 2.
"The Card Game" as a "teacher-research report” or "account."
3.
ZQ: _ DESCRIPTION*ANALYSIS"INTERPRETATION _
Writing up your research-is a hit like dining at an elaborate buffet. There are
multiple choices available, guided primarily by your purpose, or appetite, and
Written influenced by your audience and who you are dining with. Harry Xlifolcott, an
ygsgntatfgng O; anthropologist who has worked extensively in educational settings, has written 4_
ggchgr-reggarghg 3 good deal about Elle choices one Can make ifi preparing written pteSe1’1fE1tiOIlS
Options and _ of research. In Trrmsforming Qualitative Dem (1994) Wolcott draws on his
ClT0i¤€S decades of experience with qualitative research to lay out the processes by which
one can "do something with data," or move from the data to making them pub-
lic. Wolcott (1994) sketches a series of circles that expand through three distinct -5
and thoroughly interconnected layers of making sense of the data. He calls the
For Bxampier first layer, description, or letting "the data speak for themselves": ‘
_Frylmg· One wa of doin somethin with data in renderin an account is to 6
‘Ch1co‘s Stor " Y g -g· g
Y stay close to the data as originally recorded. The final account may
{Account TIA draw long excerpts from one’s field notes, or repeat informants’
and T‘1B’ words so that informants themselves seem to tell their stories. The
pp‘148`1/lg') strategy of this approach is to treat descriptive data as fact .1 . . [so] _
that the data speak for themselves. (p. 10) /
Wolcott contrasts description with analysis, "a second way of organizing and
reporting data that builds upon [description] . . . to expand and extend . . . the
purely descriptive account . . . to identify key factors and relationships" (p. 10). .
Analysis operates, he notes, in a "careful and systematic way" to create a meta- E
level around the data that attempts to show why things are -as they are. The
third way of dealing with data, which Wolcott labels interpretation, takes analy-
sis to a broader frame by connecting the data to the wider world of purposes
and reasons. To work on this layeig however, the researcher must sometimes "fiIl
in the gaps." Wolcott (1994) says that interpretation
• Donut; TEAc1~1ER—REsEARcH: Fnom Iwouiav TO UNo1=;as‘rANoiNc
; -:_-- an ____ - -___.... . . _A _iee · . - -- _ _ n. . - - . . _ ( -_ _ n - _
‘ ‘‘'' ‘ l `

7
does not claim to be as convincingly or compulsively "scientific" as
[analysis] .... [lt is] neither as loyal to nor as restricted by observa—
tional data [as description]. The goal is to make sense of what goes
on, to reach out for understanding or explanation beyond the limits
of what can be explained with the degree of certainty usually associ—
ated with analysis. (pp. 10-11).
Wolcott’s tripartite framework can be useful in locating your primary focus .:__]]_ g
in making the data public: Wliat do you need to do to “do something with r
data”? Do you need to describe them? To “build connections” among the data
through analysis? Or do you need to interpret the findings in terms of broader
. . D . . . Ways Of
issues and questions. All of these functions are critical, but you need to be clear describing dam
on your purpose. Vllolcott (pp. 17-23) goes on to outline ten ways to organize Wolcott (1994;
and present descriptions of data. These are ways of locating the plot line in your
data so that you can tell the story effectively.
l. Claroizologiccil order draws on the order of events in time to tell the story.
i 2. Reseczrclaer or imrrcztor order relates the account in “ the way the story
has been revealed to the researcher.°’ ‘
3. Progressive focusing uses the analogy of a movie camera to relate the
_ immediate data and the larger context. In a study built around a spe—
cific problem or situation, this account "slowly zooms from broad
context to the particulars of the case, or starts with a close-in view i
and gradually backs away to include more context."
4. A "cltzy-ii-:-the-life" of uses “sorne customary sequence of events,”
such as an activity period, a school day, or a week, to tell the story. It
takes the reader into the action and description in the data, using an
established time frame as the structure.
5. A critical or key event creates a story—witl1in—a-story by focusing on
one or two events or situations that are microcosrns of the larger
account. The full story is told through the lens of these events.
_ 6. Plot amd characters tells the story through its main characters and
` their interactions, allowing them to drive the account. Like (4) and
(5), this device has a telescopic quality that brings the story into focus `
via a particular set of characters and events.
7. Groups in iatemction is similar to (6), but uses groups, as opposed to
individuals, to focus the account. In this approach, it is worth con- _
sidering how the groups are portrayed, especially if you may be con- .
trasting a group that is "successful” with one that is not.
8. Following rm analytical frrmzeworle uses the framework of the research - _
as a structure into which to fit the description. This can be a delicate
task in that the trick is to not let the framework drive the descriptive
evidence. Rather, the aim is to assemble the data according to the ·
framework, Wolcott likens this approach to using the instruction sheet
to assemble a wheelbarrovv: You need to “n1ake sure all parts are
GoiNG Pumic • 161
-_ `‘‘‘ E- _`‘-- *;¤;f*:.-;;tj ’—_. 1:i_<_`·z`-:.;-;=;:;-¤i ---‘ ;’€<.`g=‘;2t-=.;5-:5—__.;€_iI—=i‘€:?E";*’§":S§?. ```- .-;g‘-;-;€ rg; -. 5,,;.; .»·_. - ._,, an -·.-- .___-- ; -·.._- _ _s.·. e qq;-.;_, —c - ;.;.; ;-_ ,.__. ..,Q,_‘;_i`:‘; ·_·._ _ _,.-.‘ ; ‘___‘ ;___;__,,,¤;;,_.g;§·_:;fag;}g-gy-; I . ` properly in place before tightening." Otherwise, you may distort the descriptive evidence to fit into the stronger analytical framework. 9. The "Rc1sl:¤oii·zor1" effect uses the points of view of various participants to tell he story. Like Akira Kurosawafs classic film, Ras/aomoir, this approach describes the same situation or events through the eyes and perspectives of several different participants, with the net effect that no one version is seen as definitive. See also Fanselow (1977). 10. lwite rz mystery lays out an unfolding problem that the data resolve. The approach lets the problem or issue drive the telling of the account, like a good mystery, so that the story unfolds toward some type of res- olution. You can read )}·7olcott’s suggestions in a number of ways. They lay out possibil- ities for how you might approach describing what you find and, in so doing, may stimulate you to go beyond the obvious or familiar ways of constructing your account. They also suggest that different inquiries and the data they produce will lend themselves to different forms of telling. This is, as I have said, a key deci- sion in the whole issue of genre. But beyond these points, I think Wolcott’s sug— , gestions point to the creativity than can be involved in making a public account i` of your work. Description makes public the landscape of your research; often that is exactly all you want to do. However, depending on your inquiry and your purpose, you may want or need to go beneath the surface, which then brings in analysis as a way of telling your data. Turning to analysis, Wolcott also has suggestions based on his, experience, as he discusses how to construct an analysis based in findings. Here again Wolcott . (1994, pp. 31-36) offers his thinking in ten suggestions: 1. Hig/ilig/at your Eiidiirgs: Stay close to the basic themes and relation~ ships that you have found in data analysis and use data to tell them convincingly. 2. Display your ;%idii1gs: Use data displays to orient the analysis toward the visual dimensions of your data, both concretely (for example, pho- _ T tos, students’ work, or videos) and abstractly, as you represent pat— terns in clear ways. This refers to the work on data displays in Chapter 5, p. 1OS—112, 118—119. _ 3. Follow cmd report “systei1mtic" procedures: At times, the procedure of the inquiry is what you have toireport, because the findings are dis~ parate or inconclusive. This means that you tell the story of how you did the research, as opposed to wlmt you found. This can be a critical undertaking because, by doing so, you are opening up teaching and learning through the teacher-research process. · 4. Flesla out the timilytical framework that guided data collection: Like (3), you are telling the research process. In this case, you focus on the _ framework that drives your inquiry and tell its story by linking data to the framework. (See 8, "Following an analytical framework,” in ways of describing data, p. 161.) · • DOING TEAcHi2R—Resi;AncH: Fnowi TNQUIRY TO UNt>ERsT.·\NoiNG

5. Identify patterized reg:-dariries in the data: Discussihg "what-goes—
with—what,” Wolcott notes, helps to extend the study of a single case
to understanding things beyond it. This opens up the specifics to the
broader patterns it may capture or reflect. Since teachenresearch is
often based in case studies and small samples, this approach can allow
you to broaden your analysis.
6. Compare with another case: In (5) you seek similarities in patterns;
here you look at differences through comparison. These can be com-
parisons within the data or study, or beyond it. You can, for instance,
compare what you are studying with what is usual in your or col— _
leagues’ teaching experience.
7. Evaluate by compariiig to a starzdard: By explicit comparison to a rel-
evant or agreed—upon external standard, you can show how what you
are finding differs positively or negatively. Unlike an evaluation study,
which aims to measure the particular instance—e.g., students’ perfor»
inances——in terms of a standard, here you are using the standard as a
way to position the specifics of your data within a broader context.
8. Contextuaiize your Eizdings in a broader analytical y9·ameworla: Here
you draw connections between your findings and some external
authority, through reference to a recognized body of literature or the- r
ory in the relevant field. This is often accomplished through a review {
of relevant literature to position your work. An experienced researcher
once explained this approach to me as being like "conversation man-
agement.” The aim is to take a turn in the conversation about the
topic. When you quote others, you show who preceded your input in
the conversation and in that way you allow others to place your con-
tribution in a context. Another way to connect to external authority
is to draw on the norms of human and/or professional experience,
thus allowing your readers to connect what you say to their lives. e
9. Critique the research process: This entails making public the limita-
tions of the processes you have used, as one way to contextualize.
what you have found. By not doing so, there can be the risk that your .
findings will appear absolute. By stating up front the limitations of
the process, you in effect forestall that criticism and, more impor-
tantly, you look closely at how the research process itself generated
the results. _
10. Propose cz redesign of zfbe study: This carries (9) a step further by - .
specifically discussing how the study could be done differently. By p
showing the shortcomings of your work and by talking about how to
address them, you make public the evolving nature of the research A
process and of teacher—research in particular. However, even if most
things go "right," research rarely—if ever—comes to closure. it can be t
very valuable to talk about what you would do in further research to
pursue the loose ends and unanswered issues in what you have found.
Gonvo Poetic • 163
.2*Tf I ltl El;:Efl·zi =.‘ ‘`,_. gf:-{§;,T‘·l;3_i‘g __‘_ i ·‘‘i f §§Q:_?{·Z¥fi‘¤{

;‘’‘ "ZZI » I ’ ~
Tinmc Vt orcorr s Sucorsrroivs
`Z`' E This Iiwestigrztiorz comiects WoIcott’s ten suggestions for orgcuzizirzg descriptions
and striicturing cmcilyses to your work cmd/or that of other teizchenresetzrchers.
1. Description: Wolcott cmd your work
Look at the data and Othe displays that you have developed for them
in Chapter 6. Review the list of suggested ways to approach describ-
ing data (pp. 161-162). Sort the ten suggestions into three groups:
A. Suggestions that would not work for your study and data
B. Suggestions that might work for your study and data
. C. Suggestions that do not seem to fit your study and data
For (A) and (B), think through why the suggestion would not
or might work.
ifyoii are working with others, you can do this part by yourself and
then compare notes. Or you can take one person’s data/displays
(providing you are all adequately familiar with them), and use this (
material as a basis for reviewing Wolcott’s suggestions.
2. Amilysis: Wolcott cmd your work
Repeat the above process, now using the list of suggested ways to
approach analyzing data (pp. 162-163).
3. Description: W/olcott cmd other people’s work `
Review the various accounts of teachenresearch in this book and refer
to the List of Accounts (p. 195) and Appendix E. Choose one account
to focus on and review it using the process outlined in (1) above.
You may also want to find examples in the various teachenresearch
accounts in this book and elsewhere of the different styles of describ—
ing data that Wolcott outlines. `
T- `m“ ""` {
_ VALIDITY
Wolcott outlines a series of choices that can guide you in "do1ng something with
data.” These choices are shaped both by what you have to say and who you
Validity intend your audience to be. How you represent your work and the understand-
ings that result from it are circumscribed, as we said in discussing genre, by
questions of purpose, form, and audience or social context. Underlying these-
choices of representation is the issue of how believable your research will be.
This is the basic demand of validity. Validity asks the questions "How could I
be wrong?” and "How might I have misconstrued the evidence?" Questioning
the validity of your work pushes you to reexamine both your understandings
and the research processes that produced them. Thus judgments of validity lie `
at the i11tersection of the inquiry and the disciplined way in which you have
164 • Domo TEACHER-Rnsrancn: Fnoivi INQUIRY ro UNDERSTANDING

T
conducted it. As Lee Shulman (1988) points out in discussing research as disci-
plined inquiry, people argue about two basic things in research: whether the
findings are valid and whether they have been arrived at in a valid manner.
\lVhen people argue the validity of a research account, they are questioning the
credibility of its findings based either on the reasonableness of the inquiry—»-—
Does it make sense to ask such questions?—or on the care and methodicalness
of the research processes—I·low was the research conducted? Vilas it carried out
in a disciplined manner?
Validity is about establishing credibility in research. Credibility is central to
creating worthwhile knowledge: You want other people to believe the under-
standings you have arrived at. The validity of a research project speaks to the
question of how this credibility is esta hlished. By what standards is the research
to be believed? Validity is of regular concern in educational research for a num~
ber of reasons, First, educational research is generally "applied," as opposed to
"pure," which means it is intimately tied to action. lf, for example, a large-scale
research project demonstrates the effectiveness of a certain reading program, it
is more than likely that that program will be adopted in- other school systems
based on the research findings. Thus, if the research is valid, if others find it cred-
l ible, it may well trigger actions that have an impact on other people. Second,
education is a field in which everyone has some experience, based on having
been a student. Therefore, p_eople often have opinions and claim some expertise.
To counteract this common knowledge, educational research has to be credible, .
The research on retention in grade provides a clear example of this phenom-
enon (e.g. Smith and Shepard, 1987). Holding students back for a year, or reten-
tion in grade, is a widespread practice that dates back, in the United States, to
the establishment of age—graded schools early in this century. There has been an
· abiding belief that if students are not "ready" to be promoted, they should not
be moved on to the next grade. This readiness has several dimensions: There is
academic readiness, the ability to handle the grade—level content; there is social
readiness, the ability to interact successfully with peers; and there is intellectual
readiness, which is connected to general mental ability and maturation. Reten-
tion in grade is a common practice in American schools; it is also one of the most
. widely studied aspects of schooling in the United States. Each year thousands of
children are held back in U.S. classrooms, and researchers have sought to find
out whether the practice does, indeed, make a difference to their learning.
Overall, the research has been quite conclusive that retention in grade does not
have a significant positive academic or social impact on students. Yet despite the
validity of_ the research, parents, teachers, administrators, and- school boards
continue to believe that retention is solid educational policy and practice. It
seems to be common knowledge, based on common experience, that staying
back and repeating a grade “worl-c¥=`?¥-f*=iiei;¥§E3i;i£?ii-·i*.;i4}»‘.f;"ii¥’i?_iEC.;;§j_?;;Q;;_-jfgf ``·., "",`’. ¤".‘
f · ‘

paradigms in social science. The last chapter, "Afterword: The passion of por-
traiture” of Sara Lawrence—Lightfoot’s book The Good High School: Portraits
in Cha-rrzcter and Culture (New York: Basic Books, pp. 369-378, 1983) putg
Geertz’s discussion of "blurred genres" in the context of her research in schools,
it is extremely readable.
On questions of validity in teachenresearch and in educational research more
generaily, Yvonna Lincoln’s article "Ernerging criteria for quality in qualitative
and interpretative research" (Quezliteztive Inquiry 1 (3): pp. 275-289, 1995) pro-
vides a very good overview of the issues. Elliot Eisner’s article "The promise and
the perils of alternative forms of data representation" (Educntiomil Researcher
26 (6): pp. 4-9, 1997) broadens the discussion to examine the boundaries of
what is considered data in such work. My chapter, "Redefining the relationship
between research and what teachers knovv," in Kathleen Bailey and David Nunan’s
edited volume Voices from the Lcmgimge Classroom. (New York: Cambridge
University Press, pp. 88-115, 1995) looks at how teaching is represented in var-
ious research traditions.
x
176 • Dome; TEACHER-Rnseancii; FROM INQMRY TO UNDERSTANDING


BEYOND THE CVCLE;
CHARTINC THE DIMENSIONS
OE TEACH ER~ RESEARCH
My interest in the relationship between classroom teaching and research is
both personal and professional. When I started out teaching, I saw littIe—
if any—connection between my own practice as a classroom language teacher
and what I understood to be the work of research. In part, my skepticism was
, borne out of ignorance. lVIy concern at the time lay in surviving, and in getting
I the job of teaching, as I understood it, done in a respectable manner. So I had
little time for information that did not serve my immediate ends. The skepticism _
stemmed partly from an intuitive recognition of the gulf that generally exists
between the worlds of teacher and researcher. I believe that the gulf, which is
variously described as “theory versus practice" and "research versus applica-
tion, " certainly exists in the experience of many teachers, as it did in mine.
Later, in my work as a teacher educator and a researcher in teacher educa-
tion, I continued to wonder about what impact that research knowledge might
have on what teachers know and what they do in their classrooms and profes—
sional lives (Freeman, 1996; Freeman and Richards, 11996). Wliat I found is
hardly a foregone conclusion. In fact, research and curricular knowledge do not
appear to translate into classrooms in the seamless, logical fashion in which we
might hope or expect they would (Clark and Peterson, 198 6). Changing people’s
ideas about teaching and learning is not as straightforward as building the
. proverbial better mousetrap; “improved” solutions in education are often more
a matter of belief than a question of reason or evidence. Because people do not
necessarily share the same definitions of the "problems," their approaches to
addressing these problems reflect their positions and values. Thus there are
many competing views of how to improve teaching. In this flux of competing
perceptions, definitions, and responses, what teachers know is often not voiced
or heard. Because teachers do not often present their understandings of teach-
ing and learning, or they present their views as matters of opinion without dis-
ciplined evidence to support them, teacher input does not have the impact on
understanding teaching and learning that it could or should.
It is also fair to say that the relationship between teaching and research is
changing. The old hierarchical, unidirectional relationship is under challenge. On WOT at
That view held research as concerned with documenting, describing, measuring, Sg;€CI;;;I;;?k
correlating, and generally scrutinizing classrooms, while teaching focuses on pp 5_8· ’
what goes on in those classrooms: what and how students do—or, at times—··—
BEYOND THE Crcms; CHARTING THE D1MENs1oNs or TEACHER-RESEARCH • H7
‘ .-_· 1 --‘‘- i; ‘_. ; -‘-;. ..’. jze-—<-{iii-;j;.5·a.5Q-"¥=[: ”=-.? ijlf '·-’ T Y `;i¥`¤`.‘?7T?‘-` —_ij ·_'` -£Z—.i>QEYI;—iIEi;-iiiziiiiiiiiifi ‘`--- L ‘`’ ._’-- I e»=·

don’t learn, and what and how teachers teach them. Thus, while teaching and I k
I research both engage what is happening in classrooms, and so they share to a $9*
degree a common purpose, there has been a great difference in their relative sta- Cl'?
tus and prestige. Efforts to reframe a nonhierarchical relationship have general- Of
ly concentrated on making teaching more like research. With some notable YY
exceptions, such as exploratory teaching (Allwright and Lenzuen, 1997), action lm
research (e.g., Stringer, 1996), or teacher—as—researcher (eg., Cochran-Smith and U`;
Lytle, 1993), the general approach has heen to argue that teachers need to adopt af
the perspective of research in order to bridge the gap. But moving from lesson `
plans, activities, and students to rcsearch—oriented questions, data analysis, and
findings can transform both the teacher and the classroom. Thus it is possible V]
_ that the daily, ordinary activity of teaching will be sacrificed in order to docu-
ment and understand it. I have argued that combining teaching and researching la
· by working at the hyphen actually transforms both functions and the activities lc
one does to carry them out. {C
T
le
In this chapter, I Want to return to teacher—research as the work at the hyphen, H
to examine the basic orientations that underlie it. These orientations are atti- ‘ hi
tudes or perspectives which I believe go to the heart of doing teachenresearch, K
" Each orientation captures a dimension of the process, so I have called them IT
Fw tt · theirs ir a- his-si ll
dimensions imensions o t e re ations ip etween teac ing an iesearc . n igure .
Of t€8Ch€l,_ below, the four dimensions are superimposed on the map of the teacher—research lt
mggarch cycle from which we have worked throughout the book. “
Figure 8.1: Ilrianting tha taach¢=ir~rcseart:h cycle
if ____ -``i‘i =‘e°`‘‘ ...»;
‘`‘· ~~ ,`.. r l -`l` ·
VALUING. D0|N% ,____.. --—e · l-··-t· be ·e ~ee- - se;—».. ___5 M pl
t.i;t;·ts¢_i;~i
` ``‘· - ··<—» .rt. ..._. _,.. e·=c 1;,IEl-UNG {EY SEEWG ..,— -_ ___,- iiliiii i',E_r`i §"§_l§Y;l._i{; "_ l B • Dome TnAcnnn—RnsnAncn; Fnom Iivouinv TO UNDsnsTAND1Nt; I have called these dimensions doing, seeing, telling, and valuing. In a sense, they serve as points of a compass that orient the underlying attitude and work in that quadrant of the cycle. In another sense, each dimension (and its attitude) calls on the teacher-researcher to play a different role: as activist, anthropologist, sto- ryteller, or theoretician, respectively. These roles frame the four underlying ori- entations that are shared by teaching and research. In elaborating them and in tracing their connections, I want to sketch out the territory in which teaching and research coexist and suggest how they may better be brought together. To anchor discussion of these four dimensions, I want to refer to some teach- I ing knowledge, which I will call a "story of teaching practice." Using the label "story" creates a certain expectation of genre. However, it should DOY mis- lead you into thinking that what follows is only anecdotal or illustrative, a point Kan Sue to which we will return in examining telling as a dimension of teacher-research. This story of teaching practice intrigued me for a number of reasons, not the least of which was because I did not grasp it when I first heard Ken I-leile tell it. I Heile was a foreign language teacher who taught Spanish and Latin at the local high school for more than 20 years before his retirement. In addition to his teaching duties, he also worked as a teacher educator in a professional develop- ment school that links the local schools to the graduate program in which I teach, (Levine, 1997). in this capacity, Heile would mentor graduate student teachers learning to teach, offering close guidance, support, and critique asthey worked with him throughout the school year. y Account #8.1: Ken Heile’s story, “I·t all starts in the parking lot." Ken Heile came to present to graduate student teachers in their reg- ular teacher-education seminar. The topic that week was structuring practice in the language classroom, how to organize and manage effective practice activities with senior and junior high school stu- dents. To start off the session, the graduate student teachers had gen- erated several questions, the first of which was ")X7hat factors do you take into consideration in structuring practice activities?” Someone posed the question to Heile and he began talking about a workshop on choral music that he had recently attended in connection with his work as a church deacon. The workshop had been led by a man who was well known for successfully integrating music into the service - and for generating widespread and active participation among the members of the congregation. Someone had asked the workshop leader, Heile said, how he got people to sing in church. The work- shop leader replied, "It all starts in the parking lot, before they even get into church. It even starts on the way to church.” He meant, Heile told the seminar, that it’s all part of an attitude, an attitude of feeling welcome and feeling free to participate in the church service, that you belong and have a reason to be there. Bsvonn rns Cvcrs; Cnaarmo Tris Dimensions or TnAcnrn—ResnARcn · 119 `ife iti V . . .. .. r.C"" ;· - .:·--·· - »-"rs·.¤-·,._ --. ‘i.r... . .... i.`,._ . r .. ., __ , _. . j 7 . rv,. H., .,.,.___: . _. __ I,. ,.Lr-:.r _...._:. :.-5;.. L; . .1 1. I I . — .,_, J, :_= "That’s how I think about practice,” Heile continued. “It starts with lift tl how students feel about the class, and that starts with how you inter» IU W9 act with them in the hall, on the stairs, in class, and so on. That is YV the foundation on which practice is built.” from He went on to talk about how he had learned not to limit how he Of mf thought about teaching simply to the classroom. He recognized, over expla the course of his career, that the bells and the closed doors that sep- arated the 42 minutes of his Spanish class from the rest of the school day were artificial boundaries. He also acknowledged that early in his teaching career, the challenge was to get through class unscathed. From that perspective, planning practice activities was a matter of creativity, and managing them was a matter of stamina. Over time, however, as he looked at what did and didn’t work in his teaching, Heile was drawn inexorably into the wider picture. "But that makes you a teacher all the time you’re at school,” one student teacher reacted, "You’re on all the time from 7:15 in the morning to 3:30 in in QW the afternoon . . . even when you run into the kids around town.” of inc stater DOING AND THE ACTIVIST I 4 and Y Eleanor Duckworth is a psychologist who has spent her professional life l iip 16 "understanding children’s understandings? ln an essay titled "The virtues of wiz; mg as an not knowing," Duckworth (1987) examines the idea that "in most classrooms, ing th igmagon it is the quick right answer that is appreciated. Knowledge of the answer ahead Th of time is, on the whole, more valued than ways of figuring it out" (p. 64). In _ { concluding the essay, she then makes the observation, which I have quoted pre- gm D. viously, that "Wliat you do about what you don’t know is, in the final analysis, _Omll ‘ what determines what you will ultimately know" (p. 68). Duckworth’s statement is about doing; it captures an attitude of engagement and risk-taking that is fun- what damental to the orientation of the activist. In Chapter l, I argued that unfortu- f . nately most teaching is not oriented toward “not knowing"; students and teach~ ` kmml ers are not, by and large, encouraged to take risks, to speculate, and to probe nilw things they are unsure of. The pressures of accountability, as measured by cov- p O1 gil ering curriculum, successful performance on standardized assessments, and of pim U maintaining classroom order and authority, leave many teachers with little space Y WSE to explore what does not make sense, what they do not understand, or what SEEIP they do not have answers for. In his There are many factors and norms that underlie this drive for right answers that } in teaching. joe MacDonald (1992), a teachenresearcher who now works close- amlm ly with a U.S. national school reform project, the Coalition of Essential Schools an cm (Sizer, 1983; 1992), describes this norm as a “conspiracy of certainty" (p. 2) in Gus pl which questioning, doubting, speculating, or wondering about teaching is viewed _ Hence as a sign of weakness or inability to do the job. This social norm in schools can g this S_ create an attitude of conservatism among teachers; there is little to be gained in learnt taking risks, asking questions, and focusing on what you don’t know. Thus the to {QH first challenge in doing teacher—researcl1 lies in orienting yourself away from pat Emtim answers and tried-and—true activities and toward the risk of exploring the Standi unknown. The challenge is, in the words of teacher—researcher Peggy Tiffany, "to ionsit; TEACHER-Rnsnancna Fnom INQUIRY TO UNDnns’rAND1NG ‘==-- ..‘¤‘. · - · ._.. · ·- · · ..‘· r - . _ i- · v_ . - -3--; .---; .- " ‘ - - ( .- . I ‘ ` i ‘ ,5 ‘‘‘·' E ‘·`‘ ‘ 9* `=.-A - -».*‘ i a it 'Y lift the shawl of shaine” from what is not known, misunderstood, or confusing in teaching, and thus to make those things more public so they can be improved. While these norms of conservatism, and the conspiracy of certainty that stems from them, can work against exploration, engaging in a wider and deeper view of teaching is well worth the risk. Carol Brooks, a high school Spanish teacher, explains the shift from certainty to not—knowing in this way: I realize what used to make me tense in the classroom. It was always trying to beat the clock and always feeling like someone was telling me, “You have to fit this, this, and this into this lesson." lt was me that was doing it to myself, but nobody ever stopped to tell me, "That’s okay. Niaybe if you listen to these kids or watch these kids a Caro! Brooks little more closely, you’d see that what they are doing is plenty. " To take the questions they ask more seriously as a guide to where they are with the material. In questioning what she didn’t know about her students, Brooks created a climate of inquiry in her work and became a potential investigator of her own world. Her - l statement captures two distinct types of doing: One involves getting the job done Doing as actjgn; and the other, engaging more fully in what is happening as you do it. Brooks doing as · expresses this first type of doing, on which the functioning of schools is built, as engagement “ beating the clock . . . [trying] to fit this, this, and this into this lesson.” She talks about the second as "listening and watching kids a little more closely," and “tak— ing the questions they ask as a guide to where they are with the material." The doing of teachenresearch has both meanings. But it is not so much a mat- ter of replacing the first type of doing with the second as it islrecasting or trans- forming how you go about getting the work done so that it includes—or even requires»~—the engagement of not—knowing, which is the second type of doing. Subsuming the doing of action within the doing of engagement in that action is what articulating an inquiry is all about. Speculating, wondering, puzzling, and forming questions can all carry teaching beyond itself, toward the attitude of not- knowing Duckworth talks about. But this engaged form of doing must be sup- ported by another orientation of looking closely, gathering information, and probing what you see. As Brooks puts it, "If you listen to these kids or watch these kids a little more closely, you’d see that whatthey are doing is plenty. " SEEING AND THE ANTHROPOLOGIST i In his pioneering work early in this century, anthropologist Franz Boas argued that his contemporaries had gotten the process backwards. Boas said that an anthropologist could not understand a group of people, a community, or indeed Seeing an entire culture only by looking from the outside in. He wrote "If it is our seri- as an ous purpose to understand the thoughts of a people, the whole analysis of expe- grjgntgtfgn rience must be based on their concepts, not ours" (1943, p. 314). Nowhere is this statement more true than in understanding the culture of teaching and learning in classrooms and schools. The aspects that non—teachers see and choose On emic and etie, to tell about teaching are interesting, but they are told from the outside in, which see Chapter 4, anthropologists and ethnographers call the etic perspective. In contrast, "under- DD- 69-79 standing the thoughts of a people based on their concepts,” to paraphrase Boas, BEYOND THE CYCLE: CHARTING THE D]h»1ENSl-ONS or TEACHER~RESEARCH • 181 ·r`. ”"`i r .‘.‘ ‘`ii.` T l · . l is an etnic undertaking. Simply put, it is their distinctions, their meanings and values, and their interpretations that matter in understanding their work. Here Ken Heile’s story of practice is instructive. As I listened to him talk in the seminar, I could not figure out what Heile was getting at. I was an outsider to his reasoning. I wondered where his presentation was heading, why he was telling us this story, and what church choral workshops had to do with struc— turing practice activities in the language classroom. I brought all of my etic con- cerns to what he was saying. However, when he finished the story of practice, his emic view made sense to me. I could see a newly articulated set of connec— tions that weave classroom teaching into the wider social world in which it takes · place. Heile’s story of practice asserts that, as a teacher, what you do——or don’t do——in hallways is as much a part of successful teaching as what you do in the classroom. From his emic perspective, the divisions in time and space that make up the egg—crate life of schools are largely a mirage. While class periods and class? rooms may enable schools to function as institutions, Heile argued that they do not serve teachers, or student teachers learning to teach, as ways of learning to think about the basic job of teaching. He contended, in essence, that you need to see students in the entire experience of their lives, not simply through the lens of your subject matter. · This is a central issue in seeing as the second dimension of teachenresearch. What you see depends on who you are and where you stand; or, put another way, it is difficult to separate doing from seeing. To grasp the ernic perspective, we must either do the work ourselves or hear and see it as the insiders do. If we are outsiders to the classroom, we will not see the same things, in the same ways, as the teacher and students who learn there. This issue dissolves as teach- ers research their teaching, or at least it becomes less of an obstacle. Emic and - etic, as noted in Chapter 4, are always relative. In doing teacher-research, teachenresearchers are more insiders to their settings than researchers whose work lives are elsewhere. However, within an inquiry, especially a second—order study of students’ experiences and perceptions, it may he the teacher-researcher who has the etic perspective. Thus a strength of teachenresearch is political in that it positions teachers, as insiders, to investigate and “not-loiNo Ti2AcHeR—REsEARcH; FROM INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING

'W
How, then, does valuing become individual? In his work on narrative and how
people talk about their experiences, medical researcher Elliot Mishler has grap-
pled with questions of how narratives can be evaluated within the broader
frame of scientific research. In so doing he has tackled the problem of why we On mls?
should believe in nonconventional forms, such as stories, as knowledge. Mishler wO,th;,~,ESS_
(1990), who was mentioned in the last chapter (p. 168), argues that validity is a SQQ Chapter 7
judgment of trustworthiness that leads to action. He thus makes two important pp. 164-175.
points relevant to this discussion about how we value what is seen and told. If
validity is a judgment about trustworthiness, then the basic question is: Can I
rely on the particular study as the basis of my own work? An essential measure
of trustworthiness, and hence of validity, is action: Do I trust this study’s find-
ings enough to act on them? When cast in this frame, the basic challenge to
teacher—research is who will see its understandings as legitimate bases for
action? This second aspect of valuing is its individual or personal facet.
When valuing is cast in terms of trustworthiness, it often collides with the
issue of generalizability in research. While the findings of teacher-research may
be deemed trustworthy enough to trigger individual actions, can they be extend-
ed to other teaching contexts? Are they generalizable? Here the comments of a
statistician are interesting. In a classic article titled “Beyond the Two Disciplines
of Scientific Psychology," statistician Lee Cronbach talked about the convergence
of quantitative and hermeneutic approaches in psychology. On the issue of gen-
eralizability, Cronbach (1975), noted "When we give proper weight to local con-
ditions, any generalization is a working hypothesis, not a conclusion" (p. 125).
Teachenresearch is inherently local. The work generally investigates a particu-
lar aspect of teaching and learning through the examination of a specific class-
room and group of students, within one teacher’s experience. Thus the findings
that result cannot presume to be universal. This is not a weakness, but a strength. ·
Teacher-research simply "gives proper weight to local conditions? Its findings
are, to borrow from Cronbach, "working hypotheses, not conclusions."
This is the central dilemma in valuing teacher—research. On the one hand, indi- _, ._-_ _
vidual understandings may well lead to different ways of doing things and to more
effective actions. This valuing I would call valuing in experience. As you read this
book, for example, as a practicing teacher you will evaluate the various teacher- iiii _
research accounts here against your experience, If, then, you do something differ- Valmllg m_ i
ently in your teaching because of an account—perhaps you rethink the success or fail- V €5§ii:}f;?§’
ure of an activity, or you approach a situation with a new or different perspective— community
you will be making a judgment of validity, as Mishler defined it. You will have
found something in the account trustworthy enough to base an action on it. When
you make such judgments, whether positive or not, you grant these accounts by »
teachenresearchers the status of research findings. As you value them as ways of
telling teaching, they become part of your individual knowledge of teaching.
These understandings do not create generally recognized forms of knowledge `
that can shape the policies and practices that make for effective education, howev-
er. They cannot create this form of knowledge unless and until they are valued by
the teaching community. This valuing I would call valuing in community. When
student teachers and fellow teachers in the graduate seminar value Ken Heile’s story _
of practice as a basis for action, they create a teaching community around that
Bavoisin Ti-in Cvctu; Cnanrrmo rim DIMENSIONS or Ti;Acnsu—Ri2ssARcH • 189
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knowledge. Because the community is small, however, the impact is limited. This Wagi
raises the question of how local knowledge can garner the support and action of vidual—-
those beyond the immediacy of its setting. The teaching knowledge of individual where l
practitioners is so deeply contexted, so strongly influenced by social norms at the writing.
building and community levels, so predicated on their beliefs about what works for non, in
students in their classrooms, that generating from it a wider professional lt-j.gi=t.s t ·—-·· i
tctrt t s sisr BEYOP
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M I tta?`i‘§i tisjut;E.<.1zt;=¤:=i. Tl No .,-T — —~--l ee e-—· .... _ ___,__ A M ..,_ _ _,_, __ _, ...» B- ig main-tire‘i1xiiitinsss U I if ._.,.i._ ,___ .... -~ ~-tt YQ'“(`iIl?.¥.l.i?€t% N D ...t Thchyl A i°i‘ | U y bmuah iiil -``' if ''`"i ‘~r: Z ins in < _.., _ , A titre 5€¤¥`¤€ tl ```` L ..-- *0 mw R " ‘==--...1.. ...l.». » . lr-w}`_r}--A--*7 ______ .. ., __·h I V-2--%` taaini»ic in - . _____ A- ___,_ _- ..V·e · in the l ‘‘`‘‘ ‘ ‘‘‘‘‘‘‘ ‘ ‘‘‘‘'i TTT Learnii and the ' I 'he four orientations of teacher-research, doing, seeing, telling, and valuing, Set 035 chart a dynamic relationship between individual practitioners and the EOSS it community of which they are a part. Experience, and acting on it, is an individ— nglrw E ual matter. However, experience is defined and articulated within communities. { Em These communities create values through what they recognize. We create terms at mO_ for our ex erience out of what is around us in communities. As Fi ure 8.2 su — War Cy P i 3 S h·° ‘ · ` h` li d' ‘ hh Uculib gests, t ere is a dynamic relations ip between t e omg and seeing w ic create - · - · - - classro our experiences and the telling and valuing which place those experiences in the social world. What is valued socially by the community finds its way into our indi- You C3 vidual experience. In the teacher-research cycle, inquiries arise from the social is gap; setting, from individual experience, and most fundamentally from the individual FO EE; ‘ experience of teaching within the social setting of the school and the classroom. mgu The value of each is thus individual and, potentially, social. Gm Y the wo Donao Tsaciinn-Rnsisixnciaa Fnom Iriouiny TO UNDERSTANDING · Wagner Veillard’s work is an example. His interest in writing is at once indi- Thfé accounts of vidual—he loves to write himself——and it is based in the school community WGSNBV V€lll8Vd’$ where he was teaching and his concern for the development of his students’ Work BYE in writing. The impetus of his first attempt at researching this teaching phenome— Chaptgfs non, in Chapter 3, arose largely out of individual interest, although the interest 3 and G' was framed by the social context of the teacher development group he had joined. The initial work then carried him to further questions, in Chapter 6, that probed more deeply the issues of teaching writing in his school context. Thus an individual interest is refracted through the various social environments of school and professional life, much as a ray of light is refracted through a prism. As a prism articulates the light into a spectrum of colors, so do these communities pre- sent ways of telling and valuing that articulate the doing and seeing of individ- ual interest. And like refraction through the prism which focuses the light, this process of refracting the individual’s interest through the values of the commu- nity can strengthen and focus the understandings that result. · BEYOND THE CYCLE OF TEACHER-RESEARCH There is an old Shaker hymn, the chorus of which is: When true simplicity is gained, To bow and to bend we shan’t be ashamed! But to turn and to turn will be our delight, Till by turning and turning we come ’round right. i The hymn speaks of the Shakers’ love of dancing and the trance-like turning that brought believers joy and enlightenment. It also captures the sense that by mov- ing in cycles, or "turning," we can see things differently. In turning we see the same things again, and we see new things for the first time, and thus we come to new and different understandings. Most of our images of progress, learning, and understanding are not like these Shaker turnings, however. Progress and development are generally seen as linear; growing older, following a career path, mastering a language, or even professional development are generally couched in the linear terms of steps, stages, or phases, and of cumulative development. Learning moves to mastery, on which new learning is built, and so on. Research and the generation of knowledge is no different. It generally draws on the same p set of sequential and linear metaphors. Knowledge and understanding are sup- posed to build, through time, in a more or less cumulative fashion such that past knowledge provides the basis for current and new insights. ‘ Teaching, classrooms, and schools are hardly linear, however. In fact, they are far more likely to be cyclical. Time, in the school day, the term, and the school year cycles back to begin again. Likewise content, in teaching units, skills, cur- ricula, and so on, spirals back onto itself with greater depth and complexity. In . classrooms there is a sense that you can always start again; if not immediately, you can do so over time. It is this cyclical rhythm of teaching and learning that is captured in teacher—research. Inquiry leads to questions, which lead to data collection and analysis, which lead to understandings and possibly to publish- ing those understandings. The process does not end there; understandings gen- erally breed further questions and other inquiries. As Wagner Veillard shows, , the work goes on and the inquiry deepens. Because teacher-researchers are con- Bsronn rue Crete: Ci-murine T1-112 Dimensions or Traacnsn-RsseARcu • 19} * A -i-‘ i _ i y l t A rr‘ i stantly living their research in their classrooms, there are infinite places to begin Gandhi again and again. There are also multiple opportunities to put the study on hold Speculat for a while, or even to abandon it. All of these interruptions have good reasons, but none of them make the inquiry and its questions go away. Teachenresearch IP is work at the hyphen; once you realize that perspective, it becomes a way of Sic thinking about and working with what is going on in the classroom. F0 In this way teacheieresearch is propelled by both its content and its process, lf] Whatever engages you as an inquiry will continue to pull you forward as you want Teac} to understand the topic more thoroughly. But the way of thinking, the research for the process itself, creates its own momentum. These dual sources turn the process questior 'i''i` and carry the cycle along. Cathy Fleischer (1995), a veteran teacher-researcher, ulggg OU Lggléscher describes the momentum this way; best {Oy ) Because teacher-research is more than a 1nethod—is, in fact, a way of there as thinking about issues of power and representation and storytelling and Shfllim l much more——its very existence and development are dependent upon 3¤€l Wilt our understanding not only of the particular issue we are researching ing teac but also of the complexities of the research process itself. My own of how dynamic development as a teacher-researcher has depended not only you ma; on my interest in my students’ literacy (the subject I have chosen to I Social 3, pursue) but also on my constant reevaluation and rethinking of what is an im it means to conduct research in the way that I do. (p. 4) Fleischer talks about the source of her inquiry—her students’ literacy—and the fact of engaging in an inquiry on that issue—"what it means to conduct research Su 8 in the way that I do"——as the two foundations of her work. These sources are gg clearly intertwined, as the content supports the process, and the process pushes I encou further into the content. So her teaching and researching come together to focus Duckwc on her students’ learning. Ideas tn Press, 1 (Chicag T€3ChC1'·f€S€3fCh is founded on a tension, however. As we have said, teaching HMVM, is generally anchored in activity. it is seen as doing, based-on an idea that Of Stop you are doing the right thing with the students in these particular circumstances, g 99()), at least for the time being. Research, on the other hand, is anchored in another E{g,,m;, kind of doing: To paraphrase Duckworth, "doing something about what you Of gem, don’t know to determine what you will know.” The crux of teacher-research is lcctcd to integrate these two perspectives within one person and within one complex Cogklgx set of activities. It is a complicated balancing act in which action is offset by Lindfm. investigation, certainty by speculation, assumptions by questions, and knowing OH S by not—knowing. Mahatma Gandhi (1957) captured this notion of balance in in the S, the introduction to his autobiography, The Story ofmy Experiments with Truth. pp, Sm] He described the actions he had taken throughout his life as "experiments" in The, which he tested the truth of his beliefs and perceptions. There was a permanent not all temporariness about this relationship between belief and action: Listom Far be it from me to claim any degree of perfection with these exper- (M3hW imcnts. I claim them for nothing more than does a scientist who, joe Ma though he conducts his experiments with utmost accuracy, fore- York: ri thought, and minuteness, never claims any finality about his conclu· ing, Pye sions, but keeps an open mind regarding them. (p. x) S€]f_€X,., Dome Tnacrma-Reseaacnz Faoin INQUIRY to UNDERSTANDING - ( I -_._ " t I -- i j . =``i - Gandhi goes on to lay out the balance between the certainty of action and the speculation of inquiry: I am far from claiming any finality or infallibility about my conclu- sions. One claim I do indeed make, and it is this. For me they appear to be absolutely correct and seem, for the time being, to be final. For if they were not, l should base no action on them. (p. xi) Teachenresearch opens up this notion of acting on what seems "correct and, for the time being, final.” It raises the questions of how to be sure of and to question things at the same time. How to act on your assumptions as you spec- ulate on their accuracy. How to do the things you believe at that moment to be best for your students, even as you remain open to the fact you do not know how these actions will actually turn out. To me, this is like the dizzying turning the Shaker hymn sings about. The underlying orientations of doing, seeing, telling, and valuing can serve to balance these cycles. Ultimately the work of research- ing teaching goes on, and as it does you make better sense of what you do and of how your students learn. You will doubtless learn from your inquiries and, if you make them public, others may learn from them as well. There remain larger social and political ramifications, but in the final analysis, doing teacher—research is an individual matter. The only thing that you can do wrong is to not start. Readings I encourage those who are entering into teacher-research to look at Eleanor Duckworth’s great collection of essays on teaching, The Having of Wonderfiil Ideas and Other Essays on Teaching and Learning (New York: Teachers College Press, 1987). I also recommend any of Vivian Paley’s work: Mollie is Three (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1986), lll/ally’s Stories (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981), The Boy Who Would Be a Helicopter: The Uses of Storytelling in the Classroorn (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), and particularly her article “On listening to what children say” (Harvard Educational Review 56 (2): pp. 122-131, 1986). Another interesting example of genre and research roles is K. D. Sainway and D. Taylor’s chapter, ‘°The colv lected letters of two collaborative researchers (in Delicate Balances: Collaborative Research in Language Education, edited by S. Huddleston and j. Lindfors. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English, pp. 67-92, 1993). On story and narrative in research, Kathy Carter’s article "The place of story in the study of teaching and teacher education " (Educational Researcher 22 (1): pp. 5—12, 18, 1993) gives an excellent summary. There has been a tremendous amount written recently on reflective teaching, not all of it particularly good. I would suggest Kenneth Zeichner and Daniel Liston’s short and readable book Rejqectiue Teaching: An Initroclnction (Mahxvah: N]: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1996) as the best entry into this literature. ]oe MacDonald’s book Teaching: Making Sense of an Uncertain Craft (New York: Teachers College Press, 1992), while not explicitly about reflective teach- ing, presents an excellent case of how teachers can transform their work through self—examination. i BEYOND THE CYCLE: CHARTING THE D1M12Ns1oNs or Traci-1i¤in—REsnARcr1 • 193 -·._ _.‘‘i r =·- · . .-;.-;.- l.·. :-1 ifiiiif --‘--- i .’`- -“r- _--· ` .-‘‘ _ i_ `·"__’ if ‘``‘ `-‘" : ?·i·i3ii’a?.Z-: i‘;`—’;‘;.E*E .-‘-1"-Z,-F; --§¥;i-=`%*-Z-QE-f—'-QgéiZ.f}iZ?T__§-`?.`,j"‘E*· ’i?’*:¤;" V . i CHA1 CHA} ‘ CHA Accon CHA ` CHA Acco: A CHA A- A __-- _, A ·— " C I- C ;¥= C ‘-· QSA-= T€dC;)€?—R€S€d7C[9 Accoun ts CHAPTER THREE Account 3.0: Veillard, Wagner. " Carnival Rides: An account of beginning teacher—research” .............................. 41 CHAPTER FOUR Account 4.1: Mortimer, Kim. "Adolescents, anxiety, and second language iearning”_ .- ..................... 54 Account 4.2: Hoganson, Ann.: “What does ‘knowing Spanish’ mean?" ............ 70 CHAPTER FIVE _ Account 5.1: Mathes, David. “D0ing pair work in a sixth—grade c}ass" ........... 91 . Account 5.2: Landers, Ciare. "On mapping data" .......................... 109 Account 5.3 (A—D):KIernme, ]. D. "]ourna1ing and prior I. %
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• DOING T1;Ac1»1ER—R,usEARc1a: FROM INQu1RY TO UND12RsTA}~1D1N<; ‘. ,_4y_, · . App e n d ix C DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES Prepared with the assistance of Kim Parent and Wagner Veillard INDEX OF DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES 1. ANECDOTAL RECORDS ..........................,. 202 2. CLASSROOM DIAGRAMS AND MAPS ........,.......... 203 3. DISCUSSIONS ................................... 204 4. ARC}-HVAL DATA: DOCUMENTS AND STUDENT WORK ....... 205 5. FEEDBACK CARDS .....................,......... 206 6. MAKING AND TMNSCRTEING AUDIO RECORDTNCS ......... 207 7. MAKING AND TRANSCRIEIN<; VIDEO RECoRDINoS ......... 208 A 8. OBSERVATION! FIELD NOTES ........................ 209 9. JOURNALS IT BY THE TEACHER AND/oR BY STUDENTS ..... 210
10. LESSON 1>I.ANS AND TEACHING Loos .................. 212
11. SOCIoCRA1v1S .................................. 213
12. INTERVIEWS ............................._ . ..... 216
A note on format.- Each of the data collection techniques listed above is
explained in some detail in the following section. The format includes a descrip-
tion of the technique, its purpose, suggested advance preparation, the proce-
dure, and advice gleaned from experience. There are also suggestions for where p
to find further information. In this regard, three books that are generally useful “
on data collection are:
Hopkins, D. 1993. A teacher’s guide to classroom research (2nd ed,). .
Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. . .
Includes a good hut short section on various data collection techniques,
with a clear discussion of the pros and cons of each technique. The hook .
is oriented toward teachers in general.
Hubbard, R. S., and B. M. Power. 1993. The art of classroom inquiry [ ‘
Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. .
Includes a thorough treatment of data collection, oriented for teachers in
general. The hook has excellent examples, drawn from K-12 teaching in
the United States, as well as a clear discussion of using the various tech-
niques described.
McDonough, j., and S. McDonough. 1997. Research methods for English
language teachers. London: Arnold.
APPENDIX C • 201
<.‘ ` il.- ril‘ D -Ii·`r»rSri· if Includes rz discussion ofthe reasoning behind con-unonly used data collec— E w tion techniques. The descriptions are less procedural. The hook, which is oriented to language teachers, has a particularly good discussion of quart- B · titative techniques and data analysis. I I i ANECDOTAL RECORDS _ Definition: Anecdotal records are quickly written notes about students, student behavior, pun], interactions with students, or other aspects of the teaching and learning in the gzmm class that seem compelling and related to the inquiry. These notes are called TESC “anecdotal" because the unit of reference is the "anecdote" or brief vignette. For some researchers, the term "anecdotal" makes such data suspect and undis— CLA ciplined; however, these notes can be immensely useful in exploring and devel- ` oping an inquiry. Over time, the notes can help the researcher to detect patterns Deli" or themes in learning and/or behavior. - Class move Purpose: - desks I To allow the teachenresearcher to make note of everyday behavior and mem happenings in the classroom in an organized manner. In a sense, an anec— · mach dotal record is an extension of a grade book in which you keep track of what and how students are doing in the class. P“TP‘ n Advance Preparation: I You will need a quickly drawn chart (described in 1, below) to easily cap- I ture your observations. _P _ Adva Procedure: - , 1.. Create a chart to record notes: ¤ List students’ names on the vertical axis. - I Label the horizontal axis with the date and/or other categories that suit . your research needs. - I Write comments, quotes, or notes about what the student says or does in I the appropriate space on the chart. I Make notes atregular intervals (e.g., after each class or each time you do a particular activity). Ptva 2. Use the chart to record such things as who read or spoke in class, or what 1- O you talked to a student about during an individual conference on homework, Ot or written work, etc. 2· Id 3. As the information accumulates, examine entries for patterns. Yf Advice: 3_ 5 ¤ These records provide a quick, organized way of taking notes on what stu- dt dents say or do as it is happening. gl . H The chart format allows patterns to be identified easily. However, do not 4_ qq overload one chart with too many entries. it helps to keep one chart per W daylweek or activity so that patterns are easier to see and comparisons are tp easier to make. K ¤ Accuracy is important. Be careful not to "jump" columns and record kl information in the wrong student’s row. • Domo TEAQHER-RESEARCH: FROM INQu1R=r TO UNDERSTANDING --'- · “ ' ...- e-·· -- · 1 sa-t·;~ . ~ -. . _ . .. . _ 7 . .. _ in ``-‘i Z r ···.- iiiiii " " ` ` _‘._ __ B Have a baci<—up system in case you run out of room on the grid. Post—it notes are invaluable for this purpose. 5 Try to be consistent in the frequency, quantity, and quality of notes as you record information. ¤ It also works to use index cards to record such information, using one card per student. Index cards are more difficult to analyze for patterns because it is harder to see patterns in the whole class at once. Further References: Samway, K. D. 1994. "But it’s hard to keep fieldnotes while also teaching.” TESOL for-mm] 4 (l): 47~48. Crnssaoom D1Ac.RAMs AND Mars Defi1·1itio11.: Classroom diagrams and maps are visual representations of how space and movement work the classroom. As such, they show the locations of people, desks, windows, and other relevant items. They can also show patterns of move- ment, which some ethnographers call “tracks and traces,” as students and the _ teacher move around during the lesson. Purpose: ¤ To observe how people and things occupy the classroom space, and thus how the physical environment affects behavior or learning. ¤ To create a gross record of physical movement in an activity or lesson. Advance Prepczrcztion: ¤ If you are making a map of your own classroom to use while you are teaching, you will need to assign_a task that students can complete on their own so you have time to sketch. ¤ Your paper should be big enough to make your drawing resemble a "panoramic photo." ` H Use simple symbols to represent the people and things in the room. This way you can draw more quickly. Procedure: 1. Outline a bird’s eye view of the classroom space that shows the walls and other structures as if you were looking at them from above. 2. ldentify everything you can see; be as detailed as you reasonably can. Include yourself in the picture. Scale is less important than accurately including as much as possible. 3. Use the same symbol for a category (e.g., circles for students and squares for g desks). You can create ways of showing differences within a category (eg., green circle is a bilingual student, red square is the teacher’s desk). 4. To record students’ movements, draw a line from where the student starts to where he or she ends the movement (Day, 1990, below). if the student makes the same movement more than once—perhaps he or she goes back and forth to the teacher’s desk for help—you can put a check on the basic trace line to keep track of the number of trips (ASCD, below). APPENDIX C • 283 j ` ..‘is Advice: Adv;. H The focus is on what you see, as opposed to what you hear or think. n H To get studer1ts’ views of the classroom, the teacher can ask students to create their own maps. This also allows people to compare and contrast their spatial perceptions. ¤ Maps can become irrelevant if not done systematically (e.g. one map every Tuesday), or confusing if the teacher is not consistent in the symbols used. Further References: E Day, R. 1990. "Teacher observation in second language teacher education." In ]. C. Richards and D. Nunan (eds.) Second Irmgaage teacher education. New _ York: Cambridge University Press, 43-61. H Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD). Another set of eyes (a video~training series on classroom observation). Alexandria VA: Author. Furth i DISCUSSIONS Cohc, De;$nitio1z.· ‘ . room. Discussions are opportunities for students (aud teacher) to engage in an exchange of ideas. They can also be done indirectly via computer, letters, or dia- ARC- logue iournals. DOC P”'”PO$€* _ Defirzz H To get information about how students are experiencing and interpreting AyC}]j~ what is going on in the class. tmtjm Advance Preparation: This I H Decide on the topic; determine whether it will be student- or teacher~ {00m' generated. EO H9] ¤ Decide on the format: Will the discussion be face-to-face or conducted in admin written form? If it is face-to-face, will the discussion be conducted with the Puypg whole class, in small groups, or one on one? How long will it last and who n T will keep track of time? If it is written, what format will be used? Who will i, respond to whom? and so on. ¤ Define the parameters of the discussion and how it will operate. For Advm instance, Who can speak? For how long? How many times? Will students - - B ( be asked to express their own opinions or will they be asked to defend an ( assigned point of view? ‘ l I I Define your role as participant, facilitator, or observer. Also determine l ( how you will keep a record of the discussion: Will you be the note taker? proce; If so, will you take notes during or after the discussion? Another option is ;g__ D6; to audio or videotape the discussion (see listings for those techniques). Wh; Procedure: i Wm 1. Inform students of your decisions regarding the topic, the format, their role, CDH and your role. 2' CO] 2. If you are having a face—to—face discussion, have the students arrange seats 3' COI appropriately. OI V 3. Get the activity started and bring it to a close. 4" KGB Dome; TnAci~1ER—Ri2seA1tc1—1: FROM INQuiRY TO UNDERSTANDING "Q Advice: B Depending on your purpose and on how much time you allot for students to prepare, their responses will be more or less spontaneous. Sometimes it can be useful to assign the topic in advance so that students can think about what they want to say about it (e.g., How would you describe your progress this term?). ln other cases, a spontaneous discussion can generate more useful data (e.g., How did this activity help your writing?) H More so than other data collection techniques, conducting oral discussions requires careful advanced planning and good classroom management skills. This is especially true if you decide to be an observer or to operate audio or video equipment. H Discussions become more productive when they are held regularly. Students learn the rules of the game, and therefore less energy is spent on setting up and running them. Further References.- Cohen, E. 1986. Designing group work: Strategies for the heterogeneous class- room. New York: Teachers College Press. ARCHIVAL DATA! _ Documents AND STUDENT Wont Definition: _ - Archival data are anything produced by the teacher, the students, the adn1inis— · tration, or the parents in conjunction with classroom teaching and learning. O This material reflects what is happening inside, and possibly outside, the class- room. Thus archival data can run the gamut from student work or test scores, to notes to or from parents or students, to minutes of teachers’ meetings or administrative planning memos, and so on. Purpose: H To capture data from material generated through, and in conjunction with, tl1e teaching and learning process. Advance Preparation: _ ¤ Obtain permission, as necessary legally and ethically,·to use the data you collect. B Decide what you need beforehand. H Obtain access to a copier; help with copying can be extremely useful. Procedure: 1. Decide what material will be useful to your inquiry. Decide when, and in what form you want to collect it. For instance, do you want to use student work as it is turned in without teacher comments, or after you have made comments or given it a grade? 2. Collect the documents you have chosen. 3. Copy the material and identify it by student, class, date, assignment number, or whatever identification is relevant to your project. 4. Keep the copies and return the original materials. APPENDIX C • 205 " ??F[`·i ieii Advice: Advice ¤ The amount of archival material can quickly become overwhelming if it is B F not carefully managed. It helps tremendously to narrow the focus of col- U lection to the data that support your research question. ¤ T I You also need to create a careful filing system before you start to collect (il the material; otherwise it can get lost or become easily disorganized. it ¤ In writing up your research, documents can be tools that show students’ " B production, demonstrate their competency, add life to the research report, ii? and allow you to illustrate findings for parents and administrators. sl n Collecting archival data is a two-edged sword. On the one hand, it does not · “ A add extra work to teaching because, by definition, you are drawing on mate- YC rial that already exists in the classroom or school situation. However; copying documents can be very timeconsuming and difficult to do within a teachers MAK}; regular schedule. It can also be costly if you do not have institutional support. Delqniti ¤ Because the process essentially involves examining existing information AH mdl from a new perspective, archival data can allow you to see and hear stu— ( dents differently. For instance, approaching a written assignment to mark Pmqbose it can be quite different from reading it to see the kinds of errors the stu- ¤ Tc dents are producing. This first stance requires a judgment, while the sec- an ond is essentially descriptive. ` Admmcl - I Tl FEEDBACK CARDS - dg Dej%zition.· €Q Feedback cards are a fast way of collecting data from individual students. They Pmcedu are usually done on the spot, just after an activity, and have a short time limit. The 1. P1 3 C 6 data that result are on 3" x 5 " cards, which are easily manipulable for analysis. If ym Purpose: @3 OY H To collect concisely focused information (e.g., in response to yes/no ques- 2- Staff r tions) and factual data (e.g., students’ names, ages, nationalities, etc,). 3- Alltff I To gather impressions after a particular lesson/activity while they are still fresh. Advice: Advance Prepamtion: * Ch I Have index cards or slips of paper available. Make sure they are big “ All enough for students to write their answers to the question(s) you will be YOI asking. * IDE I Make sure your questions are specific and clear: YOI I Limit the number of questions. You can also limit the length of the Ym responses (e.g., "Write two to three sentences about X"). * Stu ¤ Allow a realistic amount of time to answer the question(s). YOV Procedure: _ . ° PCC . . . . . Y0 E 1. Provide the instructions before handing out the cards so students listen to you. E Tm - 2. Model and/or write what students are to do on the blackboard. Often stu- 4 K dents will benefit from an example. Um 3. Pass out the index cards or slips of paper. I Bac 4. Give a time warning before collecting (e.g., "You have another minute to fin- {CW ish writing your comments?). am! jNG TEAcneR—REseAucH: Fnowi Iwouinv TO Umonnsraivoriszo in ‘ ---‘-` i t`i: . in I .. in T in D I `ei I · I I I in in -- ` P I i .·.- i i if iiii P eiriii e ww Advice: E Feedback cards are easy to handle and fast to read. They lend themselves to tabulation, sorting, and/or easy rearrangement for comparisons. H The small size of the card or slip of paper can help students to focus their comments (e.g., "Write the pros of an activity on one side of the card. Turn it over and write the cons on the other side."). H Because there is little time for reflection, you can get a sense of students’ immediate responses to an issue. However, too little time may result in shallow, flip, or incomplete responses. S As with archival data, a thorough filing system helps enormously. It is easy to lose or misplace index cards or slips of paper. ` MAKING AND TRANSCRIBING AUDIO RECORDINGS Definition: ‘ An audio recording captures spoken interactions in the activity or lesson. Purpose: e H To capture the oral interactions in an activity or lesson between teacher and students, and among students. Advance P1·epamtiorz: H The tape recorder and the microphone should be tested in advance. lf stu- dents are to manipulate it, they may need to be taught how to use the equipment as well. l - Procedure: .1. Place a microphone or tape recorder near those students you wish to record. lf you are using a sm‘all machine, students can pass it from speaker to speak- er, or have one individual carry it around during an activity. 2. Start the tape running to record the entire interaction. 3. After tapes are made, they will need to be transcribed. Advice: H Check the equipment thoroughly before class to make sure it is working. H Audiotaping captures what people are saying during class, and it can free you to concentrate on other aspects of the interactions. H In group work, more than one group can be recorded at the same time if you use multiple recorders. Be very sure to accurately label the tapes so you know where the data come from and when they were collected. _ H Students may be nervous about being recorded and not respond as usual. _ _ You may want to "practice" with the recorder and microphone to allow ` people to become comfortable and familiar with them before attempting to gather crucial data. _ ¤ Transcribing tape recordings-is very time-consuming. The usual ratio is 3 or 4 to 1. That is, depending on the complexity of the talk and the skill of the - transcriber, it can take three or four hours to transcribe one hour of tape. H Background noise can be very distracting and make voices inaudible. A few "practice" experiences can help you find a strategy for dealing with ambient noise. . Appnnoix C • 207 iiil s ’ . s "Y H Using stereo recording microphones makes transcribing easier because you E Vi can turn to one channel and then another, thus eliminating some of the 83 background noise while you transcribe. rh H Don’t record over tapes until the research project is completed, if then, E Rt Often, you may want or need to refer back to earlier tapes that may not Yi! have seemed relevant at the time. It is always worth saving tapes. B2 Further References: F¢m`l?€*' van Liei, L. 1988. The classroom and the language learner London: Longman, Vai'! Lic] Allwright, R., and K. Bailey. 1991. Focus on the language classroom: An intro- Allwfigl duction to classroom researcla for language teaclaers. Cambridge UK: Cambridge df-f€?l0” University Press. Appendices A·H, pp. 202-223. U¤iV€F$i MAKING AND TRANSCRIBING VIDEO RECORDINGS CLASS Defnition: Delinlli A video recording captures both verbal and nonverbal interactions in an activi- Class Ol ty or lesson. i Yicipémi (non—pa Purpose: _ Ulm qw I To capture the verbal and nonverbal behavior and interactions of an entire (ag BW class, a group of students, or the teacher interacting with students. ii _ _ Purpose Advance Preparation: _ I TO ¤ You will need to locate, set up, and test the video equipment. You may also thc need to identify a camera person. an Procedure: Advmm _ 1. Locate the video equipment and learn how to use it ahead of time. B NC 2. Test the equipment before class to make sure it is working. (Don’t forget to Ob, check the battery if you are using one). E YO 3. Decide whether you want to have a moving or stationary camera. lf the cam~ s t 31, era will be moving, identify a camera person. If the camera will be stationary, decide where you want to set it up. P7'0¢`€¢lu1 4. Decide whether you want to let the video run, or plan to start and stop it as 1- B€f0f• needed. Oui 0 5. To analyze the video, you will need to review and transcribe it. cnvirt _ quick Advice: 2- AS {hl ¤ Setting the camera up several days before you intend to do any recording NON, may help the students to get used to it and thus make them less self—con— 3- If you scious when you actually begin taping. i Hom E ¤ Always check the equipment thoroughly to make sure it works and to ments make sure the camera person knows how to operate it. - . I Don’t film with the camera pointed toward any strong source of light Advkef (e.g. windows) or you vvon’t be able to see anything except shadows. i " Ob ¤ Background noise may make the audio track difficult to hear. Cla! I Videos are an excellent way to observe yourself interacting with students. MC They also allow you to see what other students are doing when you are mf? working with an individual or a group. NG TEAciiER-Rnseixncii; FROM INQu1RY TO UNDeRs‘rixND1N<; S Videos allow you to document participation that is not oral, and thus to gain a fuller sense of the class or activity. However, for this reason there is the danger of collecting too much information. ¤ Remember that analyzing video tapes, like transcribing audiotapes, takes time. You will need a coding scheme (see Appendix A; also Ailwright and Bailey, I991, below). Further References: van Lier, L. 1988. The classroonz and the language learner London: Longman. Allwright, R., and K. Bailey. 1991. Focus on the language classroom: An intro- duction to classroom research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge ` University Press. Appendices A-H, pp. 202-223. CLASS OBSERVATION/FIELD NOTES De]?1-tition: Class observation or field notes are notes taken by the teacher either as a par- ticipant (participant observer) or as an observer in another teacher’s classroom (non—participant observer). Observations may be general or guided by a partic- ular question or concern. Note-taking may be continual or at regular intervals, (e. g., every five minutes). Purpose: A . H To provide descriptions of teacher or student behavior with emphasis on l the setting, group structures, nonverbal information, and interactions among participants. Advance Preparation: H Non-participant observers will need to be informed of the focus of the observation. ¤ You will need paper and writing utensils for notes. It is also possible to take notes on a laptop computer if you type very quickly. Procedure: 1. Before the activity or lesson begins, describe the setting briefly. Note the lay- out of the classroom and provide other information about the classroom environment (e.g., noise level, temperature, lighting). You can also sketch a quick classroom diagram or map (see technique). 2. As the activity or lesson progresses, make notes about what is happening. Note interactions between participants and/or individuals’ behavior. 3. If you have thoughts or ideas about why things are happening as they are, e . note these as well, but mark them clearly. These are called "observer’s com- ments" and can. be marked with an “OC" in the margin. _ " Advice: l Observation and field notes are a useful way to gather information about p classroom happenings. Notes are a low»tech alternative to videotaping and, although they are far less comprehensive, they "predigest" the infor- mation, which you would have to do as you analyzed the videotape. APPENDIX C • 209 Q3 ·l.’i‘‘ it ·‘`:r‘·`· ff `‘-2 Z 1‘`` E Sometimes students behave differently when there is a visitor observing, so E In the participant observer may be able to gather a more accurate record of W a typical class than would a non—participant observer. B Y( B Results are only as accurate as the observer is diligent. It is important to th be consistent in recording information. E It ¤ It’s difficult to collect accurate data while teaching; in other words, it is hl hard to be your own participant observer. For that reason, anecdotal W_ records can work better if you are teaching. E A Nomparticipant observers can gather valuable information about observ- able phenomena (e.g. how many times the teacher calls on a particular stu— STUDEP dent, how many times students ask questions, who the teacher calls on). . . Defuzzte Further References: Student Boglan, R. C., and S. K. Bicklan. 1982. Qzmlitntive reserzrcla for edzrcrtrion. nals are B : . . —— 3. oston Allyn Sc Bacon pp 74 9 Pufposi Day, R. 1990. “Teacher observation in second language teacher education." In ¤ Tr ]. C. Richards and D. Nunan (eds.) Second Irzrzgzmge tene/ver education. New . . . Advent York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 43—61. I Y, Saniway, K. D. 1994. “But it’s hard to keep fieldnotes while also teaching? ez TESOL jourmzl 4 (1): 47-48. ¤ Yi sh JOURNALS KEPT BY TEACHER OR STUDENTS tl; . . U Defmtzonr · E Fi journals record the thoughts, feelings, reflections, and observations of the fe writer. They may be focused on a specific lesson, activity, or student, or they can fc describe the writer’s more general day-to-day thinking or questions. The Si, description below is separated into teacher journals and student journals. i C8 Procedi TEACHER OURNALS J 1. nur Purpose:] · , I l - 2_ EXP! ¤ To identify issues, puzzles, or questions m teaching. (Sha, Advance p1·ep¢mitio11: 1Y all ¤ You’l1 need writing materials or a computer. bg 9* t e ]· Procedure: l ` l I 3t POSE 1. Decide on a regular schedule for W1‘1t1Hg in the journal. Writ, 2. Record your thoughts, questions, or concerns in general or as they relate to 4_ It is a lesson or issue you are currently focusing on. bcfo, 3. It can be very useful to reread your journal periodically. Any notes you make 5_ COP, on rereading should be kept separately, erther in another sectron of the jour- _ nal or in another color pen or computer font. A.d’”€e* I Bc Advice: P, l If your students write in journals during class, you can use that time to E If write in yours. Often this parallel activity can be very useful in modeling 3, the value of journaling. ' imo Te.~xcHnn»REsEARcH: FROM Iivouiav TO UNDERSTANDING - i as `] if r"`. ` H In general, the more frequent the journaling, the more useful it is. Ideally you should find time to write in your journal every day. H You can use th journal to anticipate reactions, writing about things before they happen. It is interesting to compare your "l>efore” and "after" thoughts.
¤ If you keep your journal on a computer, it is easy to read and to code;
however, if the computer is not available in the classroom, it can limit your
writing time.
¤ Always make back—up disks of any journal kept on computer.
STUDENT IOURNALS _ _
Dejdnition:
Student journals record how students perceive their own learning. These jour-
nals are usually longer and more reflective than other forms of data collection.
Purpose:
B To collect data from the students’ point of view.
Advance Preparation:
¤ You need to decide on the logistics of the journal, (e.g., ls it a section in an
existing notebook, a separate notebook, on a computer disk, etc.?).
H You also need to decide on the frequency, when and where the students
should make their entries, as well as the general parameters of focus, what
they are to write about (e.g., Is the topic open or is it focused on a partic-
ular issue, skill, or activity?). i.
H Finally, you need to decide if, when, how, how often, and who will provide
feedback. There are endless options here. There can be no feedback, or the
· feedback can be teacher—student, student-student, or whole group discus—
sion about journals; it can happen after every entry, weekly, or monthly; it
can focus on form, understanding content, reacting to content, etc.
Procedure: g
1. Tell students about your decisions on logistics, frequency, and parameters.
2. Explain what will happen to the data once they finish their journal entries
(Sharing with peers, conferencing with teacher). it is very important, ethical—
ly and procedurally, that students know who the audience of the journal will
be before they start the process. You need to be explicit about who will read
the journal, when, and for what purpose.
3. Pose a question or prompt that is open—er1ded so students have something to
write about. -
4.. It is important to get students’ permission to draw on their journals for data
before you collect the journals.
5. Copy. or take notes on relevant passages. . ‘
Advice: ‘ i g
B Because they are not face-to-face, student journals can be more private or `
personalized than interviews or discussions, for example.
¤ if students write on the same size paper, it will save you a great deal of time
and frustration when photocopying their entries.
APPENDIX C • 211
. r``ii if iiii r
_ ` --5 V V ' - ’ i`§”1*$-'”ZE!;£..t":`»Z€.'.='1ZiZ2Ziv.i;;§;If1'£§}¤i.fa_§.Z;LI.ZZi.l' $7:;. ._ ;"- _... -..S ;.[.Fl Z ' , .._."=:;_.·· :.i.;T·Z-i;- :f_;. r<..' g¤§TZ"-Z,-·'.‘ EJ-`;_-_ ';.·§'..,_;_.ti;.';__-·;j_:;g—;"7;5,;-- gy; ____ B Reading and responding t0 journals can be very time-consuming. lt can be 5_ Rev, easy to fall behind, and thus not allow you to provide timely feedback, For Gnu. this reason, it is important to think through the frequency of entries and (Og 1 the feedback strategies you plan to use before students start journaling. Wha ¤ Students may show initial resistance if they consider journaling to be too much writing. They may also see it as an invasion of privacy if you read Advice their journals. Some students may doubt the value of journals as a learn— '* T ing tool if the entries are not corrected regularly, All of these issues can be Y addressed if you are very clear about the parameters and the types of feed- 9 back before you start the process. ' li ¤ You can ask students to reread their entries and to reflect on their own V thinking and progress. This rereading can also allow students to begin S analyzing their own journals, particularly if you enlist them in the research E project. If you then take (1) the journal itself, (2) the student—writer’s “ ( analysis, and (3) your analysis, you have a solid set of interpretations to 8 triangulate. . Farther References: j McDonough, j. and S. McDonough. 1997. Research methods for English lan- I I guage teachers. London: Arnold. pp. 121—~136. 2 LESSON PLANS AND TEACHING LOGS _ c De]%1itio11; Lesson plans describe the ·objectives of a class, the materials and processes SOCI planned to meet those objectives, and the expected roles of participants. They Dehn: provide a prospective account of the lesson as planned. Socio; Teaching logs record what happened during a lesson; they provide a retrospec- as Hi tive account of the Iesso:i.—as-tauglat. Although they can be used separately, les· Pants son plans and teaching logs are most effective when done together, as comple— Hulicl mentary forms of data collection. SOCIOE Each Purpose: indica l To allow comparison of the teacher’s expectations for a class with what actually happened. Pmlpi Advance preparation: I Have paper and a writing utensil ready to take notes during and/or imme— diatel after the lesson. Adm; Y n Procedure: 1. Write the lesson plans according to whatever style is most comfortable and familiar. n 2. Leave room for notes that will be taken during class. s n 3. Teach the class. 4. During class, take notes about student behavior, timing, last minute changes, unexpected problems or outcornes, etc., in the space allotted on the lesson plan or on a separate piece of paper. _ Donso Ti2AcnnR—ReseAncia: Faoin Iixioumv TO UNDnas‘1‘ANDn~1c; 5. Review the notes and lesson plans after the lesson. Write up a teaching log entry that summarizes all the salient points from your notes. Reference the log to your lesson plan so you can see what you planned, what you did, and what happened. Advice: H The basic questions for the teaching log are: What did you plan? What did you actually do? What happened? It can help to keep them in mind as you are making notes during the lesson. ¤ lf you write directly on the lesson plan in a different color ink, your notes will be easy to see. However, this practice can also deface the plan itself, so it is best done on a copy of the lesson plan so that you have the origi- nal as a separate record. H Other options include inserting the lesson plan in a loose—leaf notebook and making notes on interleaved sheets of paper; dividing the paper into two columns and making the lesson plan in the left column and the notes in the right column; using large Post—it notes (although this can easily get _ messy as the notes can separate from the plan and get lost). ¤ If you have access to a laptop computer, you can enter your lesson plan and then enter notes directly in the lesson plan in a different font. You can also enter your teaching log in the lesson at appropriate points, again in a different font. _ . Socrooaaivrs Definition: Sociograms are maps of how participants in a class or activity see one another as measured by given criteria. Sociograms collect second~order data of partici- pants’ perceptions, (em., Who is best writer in the class? Who has the best pro- nunciation? Wlio would I like to work on X project with the most?). A sociogram can thus capture participants’ views of the ‘°chernistry" of the group. Each participant is an "element," and these elements are connected by arrows indicating preferences, to compose a "social product," ` For an Example Purpose: of a sociogram, I To have students compare and contrast their views of themselves and their 866 Chfgger 6' work to those of others, in relation to the group. pl I Advance Prepamtiom H Decide what you want to find out in the sociogram. Decide why you want to find it out: How does the sociogram relate to the research question and design? It is important to make the focus simple. I Have materials (index cards or slips of paper) ready. · l Do the sociogram task yourself (e.g., Name the three top writers in this class). Assign numeric values or a different type of line to each response (e.g., All #1 selections will get 5 points or are connected by dotted lines); otherwise, your sociograin will become unreadable. APPENDIX C • 213 tiit it- ‘ J - Procedure: 11.. Explain the task and why you are doing it. This context is necessary so stu- dents know what is going to happen with the information. For example, "We have been studying vocabulary a lot in this class, and I am interested in your ideas about who seems to have the easiest time learning new words and why. On this slip of paper, I’d like you to write down the names of three people in the class who seem to have the easiest time learning new vocabulary. You can list yourself. Number your choices from l to 3. Then, next to each name, write why you think that person is good at learning vocabulary. This infor- mation will help me in deciding how to group you in activities next week." 2. To help students be aware of all the choices, it is useful to list everyone’s name F on the blackboard. You should also emphasize that students can list them- selves if they choose. 3. Hand out the cardsor slips of paper. Do not allow students to talk or con- sult with other classmates while making their choices. They are to work silently and independently. 4. Collect the cards. At this point, you may choose to have a discussion about the task. 5. Afterwards build a sociogram with the results. There are two ways to do so (see Chapter 6, p. 139 for examples). In ai Numerical analysis.- To calculate the total score for each participant, multiply the ; the total number of times the individual is given a ranking by his or her class- l persi mates by the number of rankings you asked for. For example, in the sociogram vidu on vocabulary, above, in which students were asked to rank the three best clear vocabulary learners, you would take the number of times the person is chosen nom “best vocabulary learner" and multiply it by three (since you asked them to list fouri the three best vocabulary learners in the class); then the number of times that pick student is chosen “second-best vocabulary learner" and multiply that number indii by two; and then the number of times he or she was chosen "third-best vocab- are g ulary learner" and multiply that number by one. Add these scores together to grou get a total score for that student (see Chapter 6, p. 139, for an example of a Pow· sociogram chart). , Adv, Diagrammatic analysis: To draw the sociogram results, write the names of the ¤ students in a random pattern on a large sheet of paper, leaving ample space around them. Then draw an arrow from Student X to the person he or she ¤ ranked as first for the task. Draw a different type of arrow (color or dotted) from Student X to his or her second choice, and so on. The map that results will show visually how students perceive themselves and their peers in relation to the task. For instance, the student with the greatest number of lines to him or her is . Fam perceived by peers as the best or strongest at the task (see Chapter 6, p. 139, for HO a discussion of a sociogram diagram in a research report). Bug, Hub NH: Domo TEACHER—RESEARC}I: Fnom Inouiay TO Unnansranniivo **- . -.-. U _ _ _ _ . ‘ - ` " i -t‘.. ('EIHO ARE THE BEST WRITERS IN YOUR GROUP?"` .. EEEE _ #2 q____,,_ GROUPB GQQUP A #3 aq .......... _, .w*f”’”°{‘{f§_ _, Q _.·'°.·vApmr AME-9 P£m2o"‘ , *#'··•' 7 *·' ’: ··-rf E MYRYHFS Y Y} ,;.»“ J \ ; hg SHIMJCJKOQQ ’ Egg " '•..’. -° §‘,'.·( I E ANQREZZA ‘§· ·· =—§- CAMIUZE r :!ARL’ _jU[£N,q : al "*~ ` `B4 I " ` "'• ··. v I In cmalyzirzg sociograms,researchers talk about three phenomenons. Stars are the participants who are selected the most often by their peers. An isolate is a person who is not selected by any other member. Mutual choices are two indi— viduals who select each other. Sociograrns also look at patterns of selection. A cleavage is when the group divides itself into two or more subgroups that fail to nominate anyone from the other subgroup. For example, in a sociogram among fourth graders on who wants to work with whom on a project, girls might only ‘ pick other girls, while boys would pick only boys. Cliques are subgroups or individuals who select each other and tend to avoid other participants. Cliques are generally less dramatic than cleavages; they are patterns in and among sub- groups whereas cleavages are patterns of the whole group. (See Hubbard and i Power, 1993, p. 41.) Advice: _ ¤ It can be very useful to ask students to explain their choices in order to understand why they perceive their peers as they do. r H Sociograms are quick, visual tools that can challenge your perceptions of how individual students see themselves and are seen by other members of the group in relation to a task or issue. The diagram can allow you to see stars, isolates, cleavages, cliques, and mutual choices. t Further References.- · . Hopkins, D. 1993. A teachers guide to classroom research. (2nd ed.), —_ Buckingham, UK: Open University Press. pp. 137-140. _ Hubbard, R. and B. Power 1993. The art of classroom inquiry. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann. g Aprswoix C • 215 t‘;;$ . . . ,_ ; .... ....... .. . __ __ ._.. . .. r... ....._. . . ..... .. .... ..... .. ._.. r.._. ..,. ___:=_,___ . __.; Z __:;_.__.._ _ _;___. __ n. Iisiranvinws 5· Dennition: An interview is a structured oral (or possibly written) exchange with someone . 6- It aims to gather information. There are two basic types of research interviews; - unstructured or open—ended, and structured. The former allow participants Prom more latitude in guiding the exchange, while the latter generally follow a pre- 1 Sm determined set of questions (see Patton, 1990). tim Purpose: POE To gather information and/or perceptions from participants in the study last _ 2. Asl Advance Preparatzon: md ¤ In both structured and open-ended interviews, it is important to prepare a pm guide for the interview in advance. The interview guide outlines the ques- Stn tions and probes that will make up the exchange (see below). (For an - qw, excellent and readable discussion of interviewing, see Patton, 1990, pp. 3 Wh 277-368.) viex ¤ You need to decide how participants’ responses will be captured. Clearly, md the easiest and most common way is to audiotape the interview, although aw; researchers also take notes. (See also the two-minute interview, described uu.,] below.) 4 Aft: ¤ If you are audiotaping the interview, always check the tape recorder and microphone thoroughly in advance. You will need to test the recording T level to make sure responses are audible and to check the machine so you HE know how to operate it. " Tl1€ W I If you are interviewing people under age 18 (in the United States) or in a fiwlétf. school setting, it is generally necessary to get written permission from their time is parents or guardians. Interviewing people without proper permission may at 11105 result in complications later. As a teacher, speaking to your students about accord their work is well within your job, however, decisions about permission Insteac may depend more on if and how you plan to use the data beyond your tl1€H1 Cl teaching responsibilities. the fac .... markal Developing an mterwew guzde: fabric _ The following list, abbreviated from Patton (1990), outlines six general types of these H interview questions. While an interview need not include questions of all six types, the overview is helpful in developing the interview guide according to AdvfC€· your inquiry and the function of the interview in your data collection. ¤ T tl: CATEGORIES OF INTERVIEW QUESTIONS 5 E 1. Behavior/experience: What a person does/has done. 11* . . . . 6 2. Opinion/values: What a person t/nn/as or believes. 5, 3. Feelings: How a person feels, his or her emotional responses and in reactions. r · l1S _ it 4. Knowledge: The "facts” as wewed/known by the person. y( _ ar ING TEAcHnR—RnsEARcH; Fnoivi INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING .. ·- . ,7 - - -‘ ‘ __.. - ‘ .. _ ` 5. Sensory information: The person? sensory worlcl—-smell, sound, sight, touch, taste. 6. Demographicsl background: lnformtltiorr about the person that helps to sitzmte the person in relation to others. Proceclnre: 1. Start the interview by saying who you are talking to and when (date and time) so you have that information. You may also want to introduce the pur- pose and general structure of the interview, and how long you expect it to last. These details can help to relax the person being interviewed. 2. Ask your questions in the form and order on your interview guide. In open~ ended interviews you may vary the order of the questions and you may use probes to elicit further information or clarifications (see Patton, 1990). In structured interviews you generally follow the sequence and wording of the questions very closely. 3. When you have finished the questions on the interview guide, close the inter~ V view. Be aware that it is human nature that people often mention fascinating and critical information as the interview is winding up and you are packing away the equipment. In this case, you can either remember their comments and - write them down, or you can ask the person to restate the comment on tape. 4. After the interview, the tape will need to be transcribed. THE Two—MrNU"r INTERVIEW The two-minute interview is a useful variant on the basic interview and is par- ticularly adapted to teachers who are researching in their own classrooms when time is a major factor. In the two~minute interview, you limit yourself to one or at most two short questions. You choose an individual student to interview, according to the research plan, and you do so during a break or group activity. Instead of recording the response, you recall the student’s answers and write them down immediately afterwards. Because of the brevity of the interview and the fact that nothing is being taped, two-minute interviews are rather unre~ markable from the students’ point of view and are quite easy to weave into the fabric of class activity. They can seem like a question—answer exchange. For these reasons, I recommend them as a way to easily sample students’ thinking. Advice: ll The advice given for audiotaping (pp. 207208) also applies to mterviewing, as the vast majority of interviews use a tape recorder. It is well worth rereading ¤ Even if you are taping the interview, it is worth your time to make rough notes of the person’s answers for several reasons, Tapes do fail, and they generally seem to do so just when the most crucial or interesting informa- tion is at stake. These notes can help you quickly locate passages of the interview as you need them. Transcripts are lengthy and tapes take time to listen to, so the notes can serve as a rough table of contents. To this end,. it is worth using a tape recorder equipped with a digital counter so that you can note the counter number as the person starts a new topic or . answers a major question. Arremnrx C • 217 · -t‘‘- - · ----·. -e--= ; .:; ._.----.. ` ` if i=i i.‘’ fi `·-i i-. ‘. V V ` V -- ..·-.-. l H Transcribing tape recordings is very timeconsuming. The usual ratio is 3 or 4 to 1; that is, depending on the complexity of the talk and the skill of the transcribei, it can take three or four hours to transcribe one hour of tape. H Don’t record over tapes until the research project is completed, if then. Often, you may want or need to refer back to earlier tapes that may not have seemed relevant at the time. It is always worth saving tapes. Further References: ljgii McDonough, j., and S. McDonough. 1997. Research methods for Erzglish lan- UNO guage teachers. London: Arnold. pp. 171-188. Mugs Patton, M. Q. 1990. Qualitative evaluation and research methods (2nd ed.), 1H6l<€ Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. ‘ tllltiff Mishlei; E. 1986. Research interviewing. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Pum- Press. SET _ (See Q A Lette In ea: our l into 1 . W _ oppo - begir In elimi vvasn mom had. ` Tl . A (unsi . . sacri ‘ albei A avah boar ‘ · to re N mari - Sl S1 LEU: . My‘ a rni er h and DOING TEAci—ieR—R1asEARcH: FROM INQUIRY To UNDERSTANDING · A p p e 71 d 2 x D LETTERS ON BECOMING UNEMPLOYED The following letters were taken from the New York Times, in an article titled "Downsizing: How it feels to be fired " (March 17, 1996). They are divided into two data sets. The first four letters, which make up Set A, are used in Investigation 5.5, on "Grounded" data analysis. The second five letters, which make up Set B, are used in Imxestigmfion 5 .6, on "A priori_" data analysis. The entire set, A and B, are used in Investigation 5.7, on quantification within an a priori approach. SET A: Gitouivoiao DATA ANALYSIS (See Irwestigcztioz-1 5 .5, page 101) Leiter #1 In early 1990, my husband accepted a job offer in Orange Countyg Calif. We sold our home in northern New jersey, packed up our three children and went off into the Pacific sunset. We were convinced this would be a better life of more money and greater opportunity. We bought a beautiful home. I found a great job. Our kids were beginning to call this place with palm trees "home." l In january 1993, the horror that is now our life began. My husband’s job was eliminated; the company that relocated us was relocating itself to Colorado. This wasn’t supposed to happen to professional people like us. Out of work for seven months, my husband again relocated—back to New ]ersey—the only offer he’d had. The children and I remained in California for one year as we attempted (unsuccessfully) to sell our home in a dying economy. Eventually, once again, I sa_crificed my career and uprooted three happy kids to the either cold or humid, · albeit familiar, Northeast. I Although the new employer generously funded the moving, no resources were available to us upon our arrival that would allow us to stock up empty cup- boards or sign up little boys for the fall soccer season. Because we were unable to recoup our previous salary levels, we have fallen into financial ruin. No longer yuppies, now we work and work and yet are barely solvent. My marriage is on hold. l _. Shelly Kaplan l Succasunna, N,]. . ‘ Letter #2 . My wife and I joined the army of the downsized two years ago, and it has been a mixed blessing. Yes, we have experienced a loss in income; we moved to a small- · er house; we scaled down dramatically; we experienced feelings of self—doubt and uncertainty. APPENDIX D • 219 .‘‘ _- 5 ‘·== 2 · Q- l- -··e ¤ - si? .--:t S? a s -.-. ··.·t.- —` --·_ l `_ On the other hand, as executives in a large corporation, we had become used In to an unhealthy lifestyle—one that placed material ahead of spiritual well-being, at 15 We assumed that our places in the corporation were assured, and took for granp Work ed everything that went with that—eating out every other night, postponement N; of savings and a consumerist outlook. Our family pulled together out of our cri- Ba sis. We completely changed careers, and although we make less money now, we like what we are doing and do not miss for a moment the corporate politics we Lgitg used to wade through every day. I hav Our children donit beg to go out every night anymore. They know the prices an gt; of their clothing, since they buy their own clothes from their chore money. We Aug; think long and hard about the real need of each purchase, rather than just the Fc want behind it. As a consultant, I know now what many full~time workers Wg;} around me are just beginning to realize. I know that employment with a client mam can end the next hour. can ( At the very least, the short term vision of today’s corporate_chieftains is cre~ W ating a generation of people who will never again view the latest company cam- Style; paign as anything more than a ruse to boost sh0rt—term bottom-line perfor- new mance. "Teamwork," "Empowerment,” "Total Quality Control"~—~I used to buy spout these out right along with the best of them. No more. Even if I could hgpp believe them, I know no one else would. Five years ago, I thought Deming could $10; be the voice of the corporate world. Now I know it is really Dilbert. El Tom Scott I \X, Encinitas, Calif. ‘ __ Letter #3 SET Recently, I saw a political cartoon depicting an affluent older man making a (See speech at a banquet. He was saying, "Last year, thousands of new jobs were cre- ated in this country. " The thought balloon over the waiter’s head said, “Yeah, Leth and I’ve got three of them." I didn’t know whether to laugh or cry, I wa You see, for the past year, I’ve had two jobs instead of the one job I used to ly sl have. Together, those two jobs pay approximately 10 percent of what my one gran job used to pay. I have a Ph.D. in chemistry from a larger university with a well- som· respected chemistry program. I was I had entered graduate school with a dream of working for an I.B.l\/I. or an N AT&c"1j doing research that would make a positive difference in people’s lives. It a mc took me five years after graduation to land that first industry job. I took great illg pride in the knowledge .that I was working to decrease pollution and produce a cou] useful product. I took my $20,000 sign-on bonus and bought a condominium. that After 2 1/2 years, I was downsized out of the company. I spent eight months appl writing hundreds of letters, making hundreds of phone calls and networking at pret conferences. I got one job offer———800 miles away. I bid tearful good—byes and I thin put my condo on the market. The market wasn’t very good—everyone else was E downsizing, too. My $20,000 became $10,000 overnight. fare ]ust before Christmas 1993, I startedwork at the central research facility of t0 H a “go0d, stable company, heavily committed to research? After one year, things Slllfi appeared to be going well, so I bought a house. I paid my taxes, bought com- off. pany stock and planned for my future. Dome Ti2AcnrR—RnsrARcH: Fitom INQUIRY TO UNDnRsTAND1Nc; ‘ In 1995, I received a pink slip for Valentine’s Day. My new job had lasted all of 15 months. That was almost a year ago, and I’m still looking for full—time work. Nancy K. McGuire Bay City, Michigan Letter #4 I have been downsized by the World Bank, after more than 15 years working as an economist. Both my wife and I were made redundant the same month (last August). I am 5 7, 1ny wife 53. Fortunately, we have no mortgage on a large old townhouse in D.C. The Wlorld Bank has given me a more than adequate severance package, we have managed to save quite a bit since arriving in the U.S. some 16 years ago, and I can cash in a large part of my pension. We now look at this unexpected situation as a unique chance to change life styles, spend more time together, structure our working day differently and do new things. The first thing we did last year after being made redundant was to buy an old sailboat! In the short run, we’1l go sailing, do a lot of writing and happily get by on about $3,000 a month pre-tax, compared with close to $10,000 post-tax before. People shouldn’t only look at the negative side. - Eugene Versluysen - Washington, D.C. _ SET B: A Pnioru DATA ANALYs1s ‘ (See Investigation 5.6, page 103) Letter #5 I was downsized for the first time in my life in November of 1991. Being a fair- ly sharp guy with an extensive background in electronics and computer pro- · gramming, I didn’t think it would be all that difficult to find a new job. I was ‘ somewhat concerned about my eight—»month—old baby at home, but optimism was the word of the day. ‘ ` My first real shock came three months after being laid off: It would cost $598 ` a month to continue my medical benefits. Du to the fact that we were now liv- ing on unemployment compensation of $300 a week, this was impossible. I could also no longer afford my blood pressure medication either, but I thought i that my first obligation was to give my son as good a start in life as I could. I applied for Medicaid when I lost my insurance. The social worker thought it was pretty funny that someone collecting the princely sum of $300 a week should think he was eligible for Medicaid. _ i Eventually my unemployment ran out and we suffered the indignity of wel- fare for a month. The one good thing I can say about welfare is it gave me access to a very good career counselor who helped me land a job with a computer con- sulting firm in the summer of 1993. They kept me for six months, then laid me off. I collected unemployment again for nearly six months, and in the nick of APPENDIX D • 221` i i‘i ’ii I l éelséy -·' ‘ V- - g:.»·EgiI =:.-T..€.',_.;,;;_I.,;._’.L.,.1::j‘,,_.;.‘]:‘; T; [1,,-;--- =- ‘...;__ .-f' r__.y;-. ‘_1 ag, *,;T___ -_,.·;`..,. gi];;-,y..,-;-;_;,g;*}E..:r,,.-j--____— It ___.. time I got my present job, which seems to be as secure as anything is today. in th The reason I mentioned the blood pressure medicine is this. The high blood sche· pressure which I could not treat destroyed my kidneys. I am now on dialysis D and trying to get a transplant. If I lose my job again it will destroy me. My ptesi dialysis costs my insurance company $5,000 a month. When I get a trans- lng I plant, I will have to take anti-rejection drugs for the rest of my life. I cannot as vv change jobs due to this pre—existing condition. P] Michael McGinn Sl Monroe, NYY. Lehi Letter #6 MY I worked for the U.S. General Accounting Office, a Congressional agency that natir exposes fraud, waste, abuse and mismanagement of Federal funds. The agency mlm got a 25 percent budget cutback from the Republicans. But no one in my office and expected the New York field office to close. 9 lOl We received the bad news on Aug. 7. At the time, I was 8 1/2 months preg- V nant. I was unable to look for a ioh because no one was interested in interview- nhl ing someone in that condition. I appealed to upper management for an extend- IO? l ed time with the employment counseling services, but was denied. The exact SEM quote from the Washington lawyer was, "G.A.O. didn’t get you pregnant. " _ ¤€W The office closed on Nov. 10. I have been looking for a joh since then. My B husband has taken on a second job, often working 90 hours a week. I am hav- I; ing a hard time looking for work while caring for my daughter. I can’t hire a sit- ter until I have income coming in. i Diana Erani SEP} Riverdale, NY (USE — LI pr Letter #7 In the 19 years since receiving my Ph.D., I have worked full~time for seven col- leges and universities in three states. The longest I was able to stay at a single institution was six years, and I stayed at several institutions for periods as brief as one year. I have drawn unemployment compensation five, yes five, times. I have currently been unemployed for two years. I have applied for close to 2,000 jobs. At age 45, I have little hope that I will have any more of a career as an aca- demic psychologist. The standard cliché is that we need a better educated work- force. Well, from where I am sitting, having an education is no guarantee that one won’t be left behind. james C. Megas St. Paul, Minn. Letter #8 Bell Atlantic, soon to merge with NYNEX, has not had massive layoffs, as yet, but many have retired with incentives to leave the payroll. These jobs have not been filled. My story concerns the employees who are left. Many have been sus- pended for minor violations of safety which would have evoked only a warning DOING TEACHER-RESEARCH: FROM INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING - - ‘ Z ` ‘ :· ‘ . ‘ - . " ` ‘ - ‘ ‘ `...- T . I ,. _ ilrliii in the past. Vacation, even though we have earned it, is getting more difficult to schedule. Forced overtime is on the horizon, as well as punishment for sickness. Downsizing is a catastrophe for those who lose their jobs, and I would not presume to say that the irritations I suffer compare to that. However, downsiz- ing makes life very stressful for the ones who hang on to their jobs a little longer, as well. Mostly, we are living in fear that we are next. We are! Phillip Ruby St. Albans, WZ Va. Letter #9 My husband was, until little over a year ago, a senior executive with an inter- national organization. He had been in his field for over 25 years. I was an exec- utive secretary with a worldwide company for 20 years until I was "outplaced" and he was "downsized." My husband decided to start his own company·— a job search firm. Within my own group of friends, out of four women known as the "Lunchbunch" at the office, only one is employed at present. The job market for mature secretaries is bleak and we are getting by, or trying to, by temping, searching for alternative careers and, in my case, assisting my husband in his - - new venture. Mary Berne . Franklin Lakes, NJ. e e - SET C: (Use all nine letters for Investigation 5. 7, p. 105, qim11ti;€critioii within mz ‘ rz priori approach.) APPENDIX D • 223 ‘‘·i‘. Appendix E _; i _p.· . :_‘ -.__ I- LIPT Case Strumizs __p·· The following five case studies are taken from the Languages .·:_ lnservice Program for Teachers (LIPT), a teacher-centered __'`‘`—= i professional development program. It is a collaborative project of the South Australian Education Department, the Catholic `_·:. _. Education Office, and the Independent Schools Board. if —~—————»—»»——»—m—— sseaa 2; r. ., Aims of LIPT are to: ‘...‘ `.‘‘ a Provide teachers with up—to-date information about the ..'. theory and practice of teaching and learning languages ·-i- E-E; ¤ Develop teachers’ skills in analyzing and improving their teaching practices s Widen teachers’ range of classroom strategies and ‘’‘ programming skills ¤ Support teachers in the process of curriculum renewal through membership of Languages Other Than English (LOTE) networks. . ` L ‘ t‘`t -.-.— -- l` )OING TeAcHeR—REseixRcH: Faoni INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING -— _._- ;· . _· ‘ ‘_ . _ " n _ ~ ‘ - — ` H . ..._. . I __ I _ . ._ ,___:._. I- - .¤' . '= .o . · .·r· . " *I= ·'·' ?r‘T"*¤"-' 7 ".¥%§2 ‘!?¥'f*""l? '::;‘ ‘ "<·.—"-. .-"· ·t;-i.I- ·ri‘r=r-'--..1.:- :3--··=·.·-Q,. “§ IT·;·'i· .i"Z='·iZ'-='r'=-- -22 = :.Z"'f .. ‘.?‘$.i ‘Z."'§" 3? '-=-"-*-3* : '’'' 'I I . --. Maroo nlonorson teaches Indonesian a-12 at I ‘- _I . ‘-‘` f '`-·- .- Loxton High School. She has previously taught-. ·.‘: .. Indonesian In New South Wales for three years I. _._-. I _ and In the Northern Territory for 13 years. I _ _‘_·__ - iii IIIII ’‘‘` I °‘" Mares was dissatisfied with the amount of ‘--- . Z _· _I _ Indonesian both she and her students were using, __ -___ ‘-'‘ I‘ ` She wanted to encourage. her students to speak ...‘ `- ._ _ - -I ..,. .-... _._,. _.,, . . . . .- - Indonesian more often and to use It for more than.- . . .‘.'`. - - just set work. Here she descrlbes the effects that - .I - using Indonesian for routlne classroom ` -. 1 __ cornmunlcatfon had on their motivation, rlsk-talrlng -_ _ -·._ ini `'-. { ` and cooperative Iearnlng skills, `. I _' ys_` I- `‘ ` I . _ ` ‘ .... _ .... . ...... ...... . .. .........._ . .. .... . ...... .. ..... .. .. ... __--. ._ -_ V- T .. . - _ I I . I I- - ea:.-.-.IoifQ¤¤.sii.¤nf ·taa = y 2 r o a I f I I is aschool of 550 students of maIniy2AngIo#Saoto¤_ or rg;I-;-I1I_G§§_U7¤.3¤.-ybiéokgrotznd[tyre-lang`usg_es aretaoght, German and _Indonesian,_with_enroIme_nts `I I. _·-I {;‘--..‘ifi;I·.§3err11ar;_gie.b_out?doubtsthat inilrndonesian. Indonesian has been taught iheresince the- g- @3-.e._j.e_er_Ey..Q1_9ZOfs`.and_this`_year-thIere_I is one class at each year level, _ranging_ In stze.trqrn._.3t>out _--
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_=·` 3- --___vtihy l_Chose My Topic Q- IQ·i _‘”_‘ ‘-·,` Q_ gy';
`‘·_.' As pan-otIItheI_initiat two-day LIPT conference, I taped a lesson with my Year 10 Indonesian I;
“?.-€.ciasIs.{a lesson based on introducing a new structural concept through studying a passage- ·_‘__· t ·‘ s__-__ It E,
previously reIad)._A transcript of the tape revealed that: . __ __ _;_¤ __‘_ _._.__ at
-_--·.` *-- at .- If . t- '_`. I . :I_ _..-‘ Q IE
·_‘_ . ¤ g_Z e Q. ‘80_·_90 % ofthe lesson involved teacher-dominated tatk Q Q ‘·.- mt
t-__ ju -‘._ _- II . V _ ` - .- ._._ (
H Qt: _Q; ·. • I The proportion ot Indonesian used was very small and related I · -j ·‘ it; .__.--‘ j. ;_; {
‘··. j_Q_ -`_·_ IQ only to the specific-passage being studied. ..___._ ·;_ nlin it `'‘- QI
II-It-IIIiIhIeIIstudenis oniy used lndonsian when l questioned or prornpted them in lndonesiani _..-. Q '_`;‘ I I
’·Qi_was_ alsofusing mainly English, not only to explain the concept, but also in routine ‘;_.-_l _
g .‘‘. _QinstrucItio_ns such as '>4_iiright”, Uust aml'nute'§ "How would you say... ?". I therefore decided.-_: ‘.-·-._’·‘· t Z; t; "
;__t_ _--`- onrny researchtopic; . Q I ‘-.__‘~. f .__- - ’_- ft
I-Q ._·- I·[ Q -.i.- I How can I extend the use of Indonesian in mylessons through using it for routine. ‘_ ‘tZ;·ttQ_‘f.-_ Q_ -;
_ ·___. §_t-I classroom expressions?-. · ·. ‘-‘~ Q - Q · - Q I _- Q _- Q I `----... Q -.‘-‘ ‘ Q_
iiiii I *TiQITiHéX i-ili S wdeiérorcup i Q i iiui t it QQ Q I “ Q Q i Q I Q J iiii 5 ui-i fi-
.‘_· IIIII·`-IIjIinitialIy_._l_had decided to work with rny.Year 9 Indonesian classja group ot 16 Iiveiy,‘IQ·QQ=Q ‘'-‘ ·‘.._.
'_`` Q _;_`I_taIeInted,Q; highly motivated students who hadtalready shown the abiiity to extendthemeives i .i_‘_.‘_.‘g-. Q_ _
-;-I¢II2-=Q‘QFt¥_i.¤¤¢i¤¢¤¤¢¤t l_¤no¤aoeQ¤Se· Q - _ - - - Q [ Q j ‘_.‘ · _-·.
reltection,_tQdecided to workwlth my Year 1OI class, mainly because they were It . Q
?§ :f1.f;I=I:t `____‘_ a..»siptaII_er-- gi*oup;__-ITney -we_re_t.-nineQQveryintelligentbut less.-motivated $tLId8t'I{S,·_WhQ_II;`.II_t£ I il _~·i f- ‘
tg-jj;;__fu‘rtIhe_rmore___were aj v_e_ry;dispar_ate_andoiten conllicting group _ot_;personalit_les.ZYeer 1.0 _‘‘. ‘_ `_.‘· Qgtf ‘l__-‘._i` ]
IQ$_$QI]$·-WSIB·g8.;CITtElII9DgB.III'i·Ii}ft8II"lIHIl'III`|Q Student attention and.-Q more Qlmportanthi. -In;* .‘-_
I}QQ:3.I.Q-’_¥f3t't;>§$t:raging this small group_Ito___work together cooperatively; A highly competitive streak inf;. - I-ij ___-
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at at-:Q:_;i-ttjlenqsteliiest_but_aIso_to instilling_aIaci< of confidence in the more passive students. _ ' ‘_t._ =ti 3:];;.; ··.· Q.*Z;.2_=-j_‘ ‘-·‘ VZ ‘· ‘i.·‘ - Q. QI -`. Q - Q ._ . _. _Q ·..Q 1.*;- ..·. · Q =--. ·_.· -._· `t.yt· i_H9¥‘L_F.‘$Q8.i·-UP .._. TI’tQ.F’iQI€¤t··.-Q ‘ Q- f Q - Q . .__-.t· ·_ · - - t ‘_·_ j_ -;—. ‘.-- years yirtiii i cl ititi ¤IrQ¤.é¤j-time iqeéirbi-mipiéicéii-I;餤’i»%I¤ailIiI¤¢Y¤lIé¤iiwcvilé iiii =5¤Q£`§;;C i:ii fr; t was .i-i e<¤<_nteS$i¢.i¤$IQZitIt¤.i¤Q¤:itiitétea to--ihei.E.¢iasStQ.¤rn -d.` Qi d-ii-l· .-‘` i ~ i·· iii- Qi-ii-i?>Q%i?Yli.iéi£;étlit$etQQi¤...QPr¤-ees?ities--z‘·?V9Z;jlh¢litI‘IPt9¤ii¢¢I¤Q_?-.I¢erni¤Q¤$iie.1QiStQQ_w_¤_l_<;tt_. inter--t¤ttenatQtsQed,j .‘‘-‘=- Ze; ---. gl. (tea-Aeiieni-'iiI;.f;iQl.§I I-`- lite l-_ iiai¤é¤.T l¢$$iiiiQ.¤Q Itii=1CI... Qbiien 1-iQet;Q¥.Q-I;i2.TQ22 ll‘ 1 I ’__ Q-itelM?8Qlly-Qt¤.itiht;.S¤i2Y-iii? -;e>ecom.e-clear however that 70 -.80 % ot the expressions were ones I, rather than
‘th_e`stu‘dents,-fused more regularly. The challenge was to obtain the appropriate response .- - .
.. from-the.jstede_nts. ln response to the lnitiaI_ enthusiasm, l introduced more Indonesian ‘
g,;§;¤;_ijexpressions iwhich were notcn the iistor which were further down in the ilst..Atter. i ._ ‘ .
`.`. 1,pro.li·ided: &..$inilulta_neous Ertglishtranslation a few times, the students quickly picked up - - s
‘;-; P -..;. s_oine‘ot_the expressions,._such as "Coba!=3Ql."iTfY eQei¤); ._ ` _ - ` `_ :
.-'. . l . { l 2 _ . ‘ _._` . _ .
_.``s` --_' i3y`the-_tirn_e'_the -second-and third-sets ot-expressions were introduced, the. initiai.successiol.·i» .- Z.
-`‘- .____s t he;pQr_ojeot.had b.egu.n to diminish._.The students acquired some of the expressions quickly, ‘_`· ._ .
.sqthers_‘re_qu_ired_ much more concentration ands repetition, possibly because they did not- -.
‘erise..es .irequentiy_ in class.jQriginalIy _i had intended to remove the;pre.vious set siren: a‘.. ..
.; _."·‘·. expressions lro_ms,th_e‘.waii.`as`jeaoh new setiwas put up.- However the stud.en.ts resistedthls Z .‘_·..‘ _ -_
i‘,‘ ideayery._`stro_ngly,_so_ t_ acqsiesced and left all the expressions on the wait; ‘.·‘ E`; _. _._: _ ` ijs; 1
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.;._-;‘ ..j_l.‘jalso‘.insetieed that this approach _reqoi_red_‘:max_imum._ impetus- fromjrne. li _l was. feeling tired.;-fi-‘Z
.`,_ a_nd__‘lapsed__into_Englis_h,"ti¤e st.ude_nts;irnrriediatelydid the sam"e._ 1 was reminded ot how _·-.-_ :3;- [_
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"Z? ·__.r __‘.' _ Q <¤_ "___ ¥ -. ___‘. _‘`. I ’- .-_. _`,- ;_- .._.` Q r.·. __·· .’ -·-. *r-- ___‘ —_V· j :·- _V__.·_ - .__·. ; ~¤-‘r i- -,··‘f ; -.·... -.-.; .’-‘‘- ·2··i-‘-:i;ie-¥i-L- -ii;..-2--i-i·i··‘i .;r‘ ; ---”..... ‘. be- .- `- - c -..- -- ¤ .i.‘ cz ‘.-= 2.2 )OING T12AcHER—REsEARcH: FROM INQUIRY TO UNDERSTAND!-NG - . . i i -4 i i i i * -- .---- S - _ U I __ _ 3 U . .._- ”imp_l_ication_s for Niy Future Teaching :_- Theriist oiexpressions tor use in the classroom is an evenexpanding one. I would like to -·_·- prornoteits use in allIrnyI Indonesian classes in the future. However, I would like the _-‘. process to occur in a more spontaneous way, with a longer time frame, that is, througn a _I -_’‘‘_. gradual acquisition oi expressions as they naturally arise out of a lessonr Two strategies _ Iseem necessary for this to succeed: . ` :5;% . . ._ . - I. _I -- twill need to taken the anltratlve at all times ln usrng as much Indonesian in the -.-` -__ I II = I `classroorn as the students can absorb until it becomes a routine. .-·_ . I _ - · -‘·_ QI ; [ ‘_ 5 _i_need_to encourage the students to develop an enquiring and cooperative II _ I _ ._ approach to learning language, for example by compiling their own resource list .- _I I I` of useful expressions in Indonesian. —{.J1 . · ·. . l‘r»r II I _g,,, I ,_,g _, ._ 33 , 3. ,3 _ll_ 3 lltl 33 lttu.l 3 3. I l. 3 .. . . I II _IIL|st `ot Common Classroom Expressions _ I. -f _`l}iE}`I-IlNG$ we splv -- - I_ _ -‘."‘ Marllah Kita Bsrbahasa indonesia ‘ CénIlIre3Id?I I I I I I I I I - Bolahkah saya membaca? I Ei Wh.¤i‘l¤éI9¤? ·‘.· - - I I ` 3 ‘ Halaman beraoa? - ; It ..H.6Y9_Y9¤.QQ¥ YOU? b00k? I ‘ - _ I I I _ Sudan mernbawa buku anda? _ ` `··r. Qave yougot your book open? __ I II ISuo'ah membuka buku anda? - _ __ _ I — IggéII.-I_-E._;___tB_3_gj!,p¤qk-at;q¤mg_ I_ 3 ‘_ - _ -T‘ Buku saya ierfinggaldi rumah. - _ · I I -. I-Ei ·r-l-- IT:-Af9Iw¢,f¤¤dyieetart? Q I _I -I _ Sudalrsiapmuiarr _ ._ - _ ‘I}§%l§i·‘Z-Z:_E><¢¤_S$¤ ms! I I Y . .- . -Maalt _ I. . I I - jI£_}Nh¤ Wlévld NRG IG dv quesliona.? I _ Siapa ingin menjawab perranyaan nomor? 3 I , _ I} ‘IH¤II¥ ¤iSé_é>¤L=_l¤ vw ¤¤Sw¤r?_I I. .I - _A;1a;awar>ern2 —-_‘ - g -
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LIPT Casa STUIQIES • 229
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Domc; TEAcHER—REsEARcHz FR0M INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING
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:‘V Margaret Surguy teaches Spanish R-? at Mclitltchle '__.· __
.a-· f cream: pamary S¤»’¤¤¤& Wlwalla. She has been ..--· c -. `:-
._‘·- . teachlng a vartety of subjects, lncludtng Frenchgffor “
_ _ the best part of twenty years from Junior Primary -
_ · J to Secondary lvei. This ls her llrst prlmary -_-_
‘`_. ` `- Languages Other Than Engllsh {LOTE) posltlon,.ar1dY.
Y " " the llrst time she has taught Spanish. Aj-
. · _ ln this artlcle Margaret describes her altemptsto,. ` .-
I encourage a more positive attitude to writing ln _``- _. _‘
_ ` Spanish In a Year 3/4 class, and to have children j __
‘ ..-‘ _ _ make use ol the available resources for their .- .`‘· _
__.·= - _._· ·‘_‘ ·-_:‘ [ Q ’ ° [ ` “
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-The-.$ch_ooi .· _-.. __ . · -‘ _ e ..
l\lloi?tit_chie.Crescent'Primary School has appromixatety 250 students and is situated in the _ ` .
arwestzcl Whyalia. tthas a-significant number of Aboriginal children and children-from _ ` .
·.—_eaa¤Ste¤t families.- in _-`_ 1989 the number of transfers in end out ol the school exceeded 200. ‘ ·
‘_·Dt.rring the course ot thisrproject several children in the class tell and others enrolled. Most - ‘
ee;--·.9hi¥drs¤.arse: er;sl.l$?1e$e_¤eiksr_¤un¤l·-. ‘- _· 1 1 i ’¤ i ·‘ --
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‘._._-- iiiveitzjegan inthe first-term of 1989, there were sexrerai I
QEE._;__.$pant_sl1~speaklng_teroiltesin _tt3_e_.schooE._ it appears the requestthat Spanish be offered in.-;
_-‘.a W h>teita.·¤¤d`¤rtot.¤¤¤e<1*'*‘<ét¤..l¤e_Se¤¤iS_h—sp¢ek.i¤o‘ ¤.¤.mm¤¤i¢y-‘_-there.¤e¤..bee¤ a Ssmtsh r ‘l- _Ethni:cj;-School op_e_rating but_tlfeisg‘_ijad been di_scontirreed.jUnfortunately; inthe second term —_‘_l _ ‘__`_o {_fl_99Q_.the__lastreqti3er_tongu‘e_st;lder1tsleft.; _‘-_ __ ._ ‘ ___·;- i _‘__ ;'§_;.‘&;-ig —.·_ _`-. ·_.._ -:`__ _-_l--_g i -_`_ _.; -_.‘._’·____ -·`-s..__: I _'_- _ - --_·_. $ _‘.`. . __‘___·_ an ‘_;·` - __-_` i t·.__ .-._ -:·-.`··-l `·..` ·`e· ‘- `- - ‘‘`‘ ·—··..‘. ~ -_ ..·. _‘--.‘ _—-;.:__. · _=;__. jjj;.-;_}.¥_`i.g;:_; ‘·-_`.‘. ;-gif _.·. e_r_- `-_`--_ ; -_‘e gi =.— Q; _‘_·-_ i _‘‘_ _··._ ;_$ ...e Q —.i;`‘. __ ·_.T Q :·r.:_ ;-· -`g_- ;j ._‘-‘ ' ·--· -; =a-` i .`e‘- -_·-`-_ "_S .·`-_ fg.: `-·‘· Y i._; t?*·‘3tirr.*Qris..‘*i?¢2$_r5é`l¥l$.t?iE.9f¢s,fe=é1.i¤`-‘Q¢i¢¤sr .--. t988`-.¤¤d. claesés- etsltiée`.tsé·-‘é'i!-..’i.sYC¢tS' iP- ie?`¥¥Q_€l'¥?*?*.?:-R-699_P¥i.°-Uini?-&=Y-Ei?-E -'‘. ? ]`@[`s¥Uéieb$Qi¤.“ih9` QV?-989- ll ZWQS imD_¥9$$€d-i.8¤d:Q'_9il¢0-`ulagédlW J ` _:‘.· ;’1`;jli1§%;-E'-EH_i¥}.*¥$l.a$.¤1.lQ_i"`i¥*3??_YQll¤Q?F:.-.¢hildt€`¤ `b`¥Y_ '?Ql§i3df W3? V'?Q*?¥C_-Q?-`¥U0$B _?i¥YQ_UpDSr -·Pr§ma_r.$r`-_¥. ‘·; :_;fj’§@W§lQ‘:‘t;r§vgili_in_g ‘‘=_. 1 o.fatgempt·`eetlel_tieig ‘_;· qt; €V£§_t1,-_-'lTt'i;$QtifilQ_.. cases; toT‘co_operate_·:ati_:_alt, jThls;_}gvas_-‘§`-_ Q_; ii ‘i`- $¥Q$a¥.i?P?i$;f?i'!‘?Q}-Z-`ei PW}-? '‘.. ¥’§*0`{§§l§§f$d,;c€¥?*.6'Y?$-.i ;-‘ WQ§.'Q`Qi¤Q .-`: '*€F¥?UQ'€i‘;-MY}-£*T l·.‘ _.‘`_ l€$¥§f¢ef · Wh-PH :_. i€tte`T2*?ti¤¢_it?$l:..wd.--¢¥¤iQ¤`r QQIWQQi¥¢$;:i§!$l$i¥.£é¤.;eZ·;LY? ts- i- =`` *?1§`;f.¥?*.§.t£rft§.¥.$L{e¥_¢?`¢t.e?i$;e*Q;Q`titét;l$?`f"??$_*$$¥bfrgjeccetét _.`_ tee;rpererlrs`dlltétei1i*`i?§.$sia Qreeétireri ‘t`e i -‘’. l lite?$$*9QiE$`.§§¥ti¤¢`Fii$C`=¤‘ii!1.’§h¢J,?é*?€lre`v¥é‘ ?.¤.€¢`S?*itF?¢ts:§¥2 --‘e l¢F¤`9ltér:.$Pe9*_SsD ·.`.6 the ``.` ¢¤tid?e¤ ..l:. t <2.tZi=€é`l1tlie`e€—¥.lt` el-iiislfa-i-es569Ffiétii¥ét·?§F?téil`t&ife·z?‘E ’--W6.Z¥*€?_?$`.l?¥'¢¥; Ut$Ei¤?*Z?t?'€$Qi¤Qi¥Uéitia;2[aE}-¥;¥:@P‘.¥ Fi?-?°P P. ‘l‘‘s * ';'*-i{;$j*`Y"·$i¥2E" Y `"·‘ S ¤i a'‘‘ ? i‘'; TE {EQ.l?Z?f=¥i¥si;§i.—; ?’sQ1?? .~i.‘· T ¤r, L =;‘` ‘.e rj? 2;% s:‘<- -e·e i ‘·.e E ·=== * `ie;‘ ;;;‘ --rs ` LIPT Case STUDIES • 231 tci ··‘.' `QEQ .·._ - ‘ \ - . I ·· `Q -. I . -·. · - . an __`- nj` iii I - ‘ I --- ` Q. _ J Q _ - - ._ ; · Futil - · . Q . x _ ‘.·. ·i_ . ‘·-_‘ ·_._ § attended by the classroom teacher. This meant that very useful follow-up work was donein -. `_._- Que rg the classrooms and theclass teachers were interested and involved. _ =_ ;_ -_ (i like I I Z . ` . I- -. Qu~$?3· Things changed in 199G when LOTE positions were used to provide class teachers‘ _I · wrote Norplnstructional Time (NIT} and LOTE time was reduced. Class teachers no longer;. _ -·`: · .-.- -E-(i-__d_on Qt `attended lessons.- whocould blame them? ltwas their norrcontact time. lbegan to feel like . ·:_ ofthe a Jack-ot-all-trades, teaching Spanish, Science and some Current Affairs. i needed helpiii Q_ l · - . start t; . _ _ . l l l _ _ I- l - LlPT to the Rescue I · i._ Iwgrlks i had wanted to join the Languages inservice Program for Teachers (LEPT) the previous _ I for the year but had been unable to do so. Being not only a LOTE teacher, but also the only -‘ _‘_· . `_`i g I · Spanisbteacher in the area, I felt about as much a pan oi things as a shag on a rock! My - I ·- I l lguui .,_., morale was tiagging badly and I hoped the LIPT program and the contact with other` 1 ‘ aix _·_. Q3 Q_ language teachers would give me a much-needed boost. They did! ‘· . ` · __ i _‘`‘ 6 Siiiéid I . _ · r _- . - · _ · . 3 -,·- _w.e_re·_i Q Q · _- · in --‘.‘= ` ‘‘.. *_¤¤Uli·` ‘ Whatto Investigate? _I ‘Z9¤¢Q¤ I " I . ` Q - - · I 5-ib-??*iQ'}_l Choosing a locus tor my research proved dilficuli, though 1 did want to concentrate on _ ·_‘·- __reading` and writing, as l was concerned about the chldrerfs general lack of progress in ___-‘ Q those areas since the previous ye_ar._ I_ _ -_ . - I · “ I _ in thls,T'Year.ci Literacy" the school had made literacy in English its much—needed major ` ’:_I*_Q£ljiler·-é -. Vlocus, with the emphasis on writing. lt seemed appropriate to work on the same area in Q . .... I-3-·?r?2gl§’.,£ l I- - l _ _ - _ · _ ' l l _ I- l l l l I- · I- 2- Z II _-r`- l. _ _ - Q . . , ’_ ` l . l l . ` ; __ - · _ -I-‘-/I .._" I Although t knew the childrens reluctance towriiein Spanish reflected a similar reluctance _ . _.``_` {?._llYQWQ.fi= todo s_oIin English, l was not prepared to sit back and accept it. It was neither feasible nor Q- I - ·‘`` * i‘`‘ r ‘j.· i?D.iil¥F¥.€ ··.‘ satisfactory-to restrict two 40 or 50 rnin_ut_e lessons per week to oral and auralworir and E;g_ "__- Q _'.Q`SUQ§_¢.5 -_ worlgstieets, especially oncethe ch_ild_rsn,reached middle primary level. l `felt I must do I .`-.‘s_ ·:`I?l3€’S`*?lé? I, toencourage the children to write inthe target language,_hut what? _ ·.`` II Y . Q `_=_ °‘. `·‘. _l=_ r. ‘·-‘—‘ `.‘¤l E . `·‘- I· ·I Q- ` I -" - Q ll: I I =’ II .`‘. s The"-Cl.ass. of 1.99Q · ‘ :·I Q r 1 ‘ `I . - ‘ - - `-:.` I .. ·- ‘··_ ; __=‘ -——- {I__§$i§III _._.` -;‘_t)esIp`i`te‘.j‘my.Qvagueness about the.-topic i d_ecided_toP work with one,of;the`two:_Year,3_/4j`Z `‘`- s"'.’' _·:‘ Ic_iassesI_.§_il:`rashly _chose.__ihe none in which,a_;srnaiiIgror4pjIot`Ichiidren_ were___b_e_corning veryf _`._ -.=_ zr¢l.¤I¢.i¤ii.l..·S¤¤¤ishi¢:¤r¤¢.rS·IIWai—== i¤.¤ir-·r.eSr>¤.¤_$¢ ri fear-I.=>l failure?. B¢r¤·¢¤r¤_? -Persi¤tél vial-rs
ahout;·i,QTE_?-All or noneoi theab0ve?;_;i_didn'l.l<.nbw.‘_ "1 `-_·. Q _` ‘-··- __? -_·=. ";.E;Q-I `··‘ ‘ `-i‘ ’f*‘ -_``-.`-`.‘.`. CQ -.`‘ I: _..-·=- .=‘. `»r`· 3}- ··,=_ ·`·. ri -i-r. l -’-‘-= fr ·‘--- r .·-‘ `-‘`‘ E- -· ‘--‘ r s-;.·. r fi -. 9 _·Ie.§j -t‘‘ I:. ‘.s‘= ;`I£;._ _’i-—` ·`‘‘s I L- -- ..`l.‘ ¢ .:`’.` Eh: -=.- and-·Qi;·-iT¤tiI¢_li¤g-- 1 .·.. r ‘-’. ij.-; —`——ri—·—`i: I it· t _-·-·..··.-‘ I =i: `·r-= ¤=_i¤ .`i.l.·· I {I: —‘—‘,* Q I -‘r_ r `..`; - r ...-—·. ‘j;j-f .`i.- ¤Z.=·I. F ...-. --1 .-.r .=-‘ i’r¤ Z-¤.¤r§.€f-QEE. ¤... it-Ci ‘·i ‘--.r¤ 2 .`=.-- I-I -‘-i ."·-i · »`-. `..‘. QI ‘r‘‘- --‘`: ‘_-·-t ¤.- · ‘‘`-: --§ -i_‘ `·-=.-‘‘-· ``‘r z`- -¥ I-Iii -!? II-6 `é¢.l¤¤idii¤`I h¤9_in`QbY-·eSRii¤`Q_ _t.he-`I¤hll¤re¤ Qin iQilfiS`I§2ie$$Q¢.¤e q¤¤Sli¤`n= ;_-‘rl<2Ii??d’0`—.3tiétr- feel -;` ‘-`--`- I -%.Qe-:‘=I* ,‘-- `IlEIf-·#IIIPQI;j’§_Q; ·`‘· *Q¥1i·.QI¥Q·;_?Z;IZiYE ’.- -·Qf_;.`ZQ·.· ·Q·‘i;? _-__. Z _':Q · r ..‘‘Q JV -_-· ;_·: _‘_- fe; r·- QQ; ‘-·`` ·__.-` 5 --Q ri‘-{I_;`:‘i.>_;$,.f-I:`._..-Q’;I¤`QI]Q ·,_·§ Q? Q’-.f 2 __·Q§
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‘’‘ I
01Nc; TsAcHsn~RsssrxRcH: FROM INQUIRY TO UN1:·eRs‘1‘AND1NG
‘ · __ V _ _ TI ‘i.§i2Y.; °. _ r_,. ` I _ ._ Q at .i
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i .-.. =r‘.. I
. Q ---‘- .·*·-

. _ _ n` _·.- ..
Futiie Efforts? _. ( ---
_ _ One of the most popular activities ofthe previous year had been the making of Me Gusta _ -32 (
.;- (i;iike)_b`o.cks.‘These.(were simple picture books. Each page began with the words Me - I
‘.'' ;_ ? gusts,-[The children then drew or pasted pictures of things they liked and the older ones _ ((
. _.wrote_ the Spanish tor-each object. The more adventurous versions included No me gusta -. 2
_ .(i don‘t.like) pages. i had displayed the completed books in the reading corner until the end .
3 ._ not the termwhen the children took them home. l hoped for a high—inierest, low teaninducing 2 (i
start by making Tengo (l‘ve got) books along the same lines (see Appendix 2). - _` -
irnede the process as clear as I could. We'd already worked orally and completed __
-i‘_ ‘.__ worksheets using the vocabulary. Each child would make his/her own book and could. _
`:__‘- .includefreal possessions or ones they wanted. l included a No tengo (I haven't got) option- `
_ torthe__negative·minded. 2
_( l-(-found the results disappointing. Ol the 18 books i received only two (with a maximum of · _
Q six p_ages)2were completed with three—word Spanish sentences, such as "Tengo una -
`- e$pao'a'.f ..(l’ve got_a sword) and two students only got as tar as their front covers. The rest ( 2
( were-.in_betwe_e_n._2The majority only managed to complete the sentence with an English
_‘-"- f -.`.‘_ noun,__`for_-.example-"Tengo un boat" and "Tengo lotacars". There were one or two -
_._. Q] e_nc_ouragi_ng` signs, such as "Tengo cfnco fingers" (I have tive fingers), but overall it had -;
.’·_ . f . ._ b_een_`heavysgoing._ This was obviously not the way to attack the problem. _ _ _ ] 1
` ..'‘ . (3 '_ -``- l Q ( . an ( ( - .
·..· Defining the Topic Further. . . _ ` -
iii ‘‘.` 2 -:‘‘ -- `·-‘. ..-- . .‘_- 2 - 2 " - 2
Alter)-consl_derable_cogitation I came up with the question: "WHI the consistent use of written
.._e(._‘ .__te§n‘sg(.;onrperrnanentdisplay, or-permanently available in the classroom, make) children -2 l -
—..`·`. ? { (rti¤r¢.2(¢<2¤ii¢'sn.t¤¤.¤¤f writinein Spe¤ish?“- 2. _- · . . - ._ Z" - - UI 2 9 - ‘-'.'·‘_‘e.- [ET ‘_‘`.·.-‘." i ·-i’-‘ ` _--.'-‘ - ._ `‘‘.i _ `‘". _- ` Z. - - - _ _ ( -` _ ` - I (2 ;[|l_.was._soonpointed out to meby other LIPT members that measuring any increase in - _- - -.‘.‘‘._‘- _‘(cG_llil¤lQ_nce,(.ie_t_ alone the reasonsffor it, would be very (difllcult ii not impossible. (lt was - -` -" su(gges_te_d the question become; "What use do students make of-the resources avaflab!e_ in -- -;.‘=. ”·-1.@j·.?l?l?_i’i§?$’i?i"*’_?f·f!l¢‘”-W””¤9?_".This $¤¤n¤e¤¤c¤¤¤i¤.mei - -( ( -_ - .. (_ ._`‘ ` -( . . · 2. - ( .l-_ ii-- ._`_: _ .._‘ _-=__ . ( ._ __ _. . _ _. · ----· __ (2 _-_· .2..2-22;.Q -2 ..-; -.T:`j(;_;(;iaiin§_iin_gi__(;-b`eQia -. __‘` - .. ji · _.-. ( 1;-- f_ _( r I -._· - ---·: .f Q- -·:§; ._‘.·___‘ 2 ;;é_ -_‘. .·`' .`ia‘_-2s_l‘rii;$iei..¤tjéckitst._:i§r.- i¤e_-ivertaus resources averiiaps ”i¤;_tije .g(iaggmg),gi `_ ·_·_ QQ _-i.‘ ( (;`_£si}pandix 3). ‘‘‘' andto limit my_o_bservations to three children, at .least_to(_start with. i chose two"' - _ -2 _‘`_` girls?ah.d_:(iQl§a_i.boy_;_&i-2l’·€t¤d_Qm. "A-colleague _wno.was `already-(do_i_n_g(‘¤.somefwork_.with. me in -r.‘ 2 2;-¥;((t.li.is(:2¢i.eii$.‘;-tel=¤t¤te.eis¤.-isebesrre *tie(¤¤.il¤r¤n(wniié-we(wie- .·.i-‘ ‘:..-- ·( 2 -.-. w ..·. -1% ;Z§E?·;22£-i-in°i;1Z.’{ ..-‘ Qtii-'("`-i.(;(l(?-E;iEiiiiz-’ ...- I ( `.-‘_`.-.4 {Ei? ill e i‘·`‘'·.--‘ Y ._ QT-) .._‘ . -‘`·. - -·-"'‘ '( -··- 1 '`.---`‘ .".»‘ .. Y _·‘` l(P`._;j .-='`‘`_ ‘‘‘-. i - .e`lt?$i=._.inC··tIi¢ _lif$t(_i.¢S`S¤¤;.BlIl ¢e¤id¤¤ .t¤` Stlllt and Sr>¤nd.mDSi-f_¤f-.t¤é.ieSé¤n`2wiih` at L ...‘ i ((
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.. LIPT CASE Srumes • 233
· ._ .(. ..=( ¤
(- `·i( Lf ..(- F --(’``i- -2- -._=__· Y·Z{7Z§-Z`l?-¥(ijQ"Ci5cij¥·?i-_`?-§_j·§§?`§"?E?Q`§$.Tj*"*5

r I 2. 3 ··.. 3 I- `T
j We had already been working on the topic "Yo"(Me). t made extra wall charts with pictures Z3 j-2’. _ - in
of brown Qeyes. curiy hair and so on and conlined the writing on them to Spanish (los ojos-·_Ii2.: ·I I 32**;-
‘-‘. casianos,‘e_!-pelojizado etc.) ` j`·$°;_‘·2 I 2` 2 to
` " T" l n- I l ‘ l l- ‘'.' ” "'_· ·· 2`
____ 3 . gi hadn‘t been abieto `tind ‘a simple English/Spanish dictionary although quite goodones _`'· 2 jg ‘`P; w
were a··,rai_lable2.3in Spanish/English. All I had were vocabulary picture books whichilsted .‘`.`.` - ·2al1
xiii Ywords under he`adings"°such as "Sport" and "The Weather". Although fun to look at,22as. vs
{;Q§ : 22"reference_book_s2lhey required much patience and stamina from these children and were _’·-_ 2- re
‘very_lrustrating. ·- 2 ` 23 · ` 22us
. .So i tried to put together any books and pictures retating to personal appearance and had 2.- I 3: thi
them ready andwaiting. Finally t wrote a selection oi useful verbs and nounladjective 2 ._‘__ im
IIcombinations3o`n‘ the board, all coiour—coded. I had already found this strategy useful. I · `
-- Althoughthey might be unfamiliar with grammatical or simpler terms for the parts oi22 ’ ` ‘·-- -
ifi speech, theI2chi2idrert stiil found it helpful to know that you needed a green, a yellow and ak ` 2 _·.·_= .O|
blue wordriin thatorder, to make a sentence, for example Tengo (i have)el peio (the hair) ` _-·_ ‘ _
2_ rubio (blond) — lhave blond hair. Q _ 2 _ .g‘_= 3 PG
2` In the iirst iessons Zwefwent through the vocabuiary on the board and l pointed out the · 3 ‘ 2 3
_ ‘ wall-charts which 2l2isted22the same words and phrases. We then played a game using the Z3 ·- "
-`languag'e_oraIIy in which we guessed the Identity of a child in the class from a description `3 ·I·‘ I 3 _
Q 2 gleaned from the word lists. I was pleasantly surprised at how quickly and 2eagerly2the I `2
·_ 2 Qc2hildr2e2n2too_k22over from me in leading the game. 2‘ - 22 22 2 2. 2 2 2 rm
° n I I ` 3 " n ·.”- n _ :'I l' ‘ G-K
j Dna Step r Fvrward-II ‘3 2 I I I r r I 3. I3 r -1 T I2¤¤r=
. -2 2 22 2 I· I 22-I 23. _·;_ _: 2 · _. _ 2 2 222 I _ . 22 _ 2 22-Img
?:_‘.The_next step was for each child to draw him/herself or a friend and writethree desoriptlvej - 22 _`‘‘ Q.3 tha
2I3sentences.toaccompany it (see Appendix 4). At this point we added two more verbs and _ --Icoi
2"sorne ‘handy2-adjectives such-as graciosoifunny), lonto (silly), inteligerrteI(clever)2-and 33 2. ._I‘‘‘_.·. pre
j-ii; ` pasola 2(cooi).·l2 was thrilied with the results. Every child had written at least one sentence. _ _ 22jgg ..IiI_· Iwh
`by theend ofthe 2ies`so2n_;2M_ost had three and two had2iour2! We eyen had a touch of humours 2 __`__ I ‘·-i ;
‘‘I‘‘- i-`QS¤y‘3¤aly¤t-2ll{m i¤ald!>$¤far`.s¤ ovbci. ·‘ ’ ‘ -_ _‘·I 3 - -__‘‘ - 3 -`‘· · 3a -‘ j- ·_`_‘ _‘i_-La:
I QA new"term_arrived wiiha new topic: ienimaies". Building on from last term‘s successthe"2 jwril
.__:_‘‘ 2 ¤I .chi2idren22.were2t0choose an animal, bird or other living creature and feature-it ln__a p‘oster,._2;.2:- -2 2 ‘I.·._ :
¤II j I_.I Again, "."_ tasked themto write 2a minimum ot three sentences about it. Thistime they could .-i ___-2
`··_ -. .I‘‘. w¤rk32éiiiiérY`.ai6he cr with a artner·a¤¤_were tv use wvrdsé found. in the §PPiOPi|€¥i€i. iJ¤¤ gl?.-2-...:`2 .-‘‘-·-
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3 ’‘fi
· DOING TEACHER-Rizsnanctaz 1`0M INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING
‘ 3 ‘ 2 ... 1 I> - · - I .II2
`2 I`2. 2 '-‘=' ii-{1 9 I

g The raiser r _‘._
3 inline first week oi Term 4 t asked the class the same question I'd posed in the beginning: ii'-].
_ T'!-low do you feel when I ask you to write in Spanfsh?" Once again they were not obliged `»_-- 3 .‘-.‘ T
.—‘.`-. .*9`;_'?$P°'?d- . _
l ‘-What _a reliefl Of the 24 responses 15 were positive. I was also interested to see that
j- Falthough two of the children still found it difficult, they were now able to either enjoy or tlnd ;__ ‘
·‘ value in writlng.`l also asked the children themselves to assess the value ot the various .‘-. i_ t __
._el - -._.-_‘ r sources available. l asked them to rate each one under the following categories: "very ..
use_luIf',_"'usetui", "sornelimes useful" and "not at all useful". Some children rated each -
resource, some only one or two. This made it more dilticult to assess results, but the fact -
. that most children responded to the question regarding the blackboard and charts in itself
_-_. findicated how useful they found these two resources (see Appendix 6). r
l- Onward, Ever Upward I ‘
`· ..Perhaps_'l.can sum up the answer to my final research question about how l could deve1op_ . _
. -` g ¤ more positive attitudes to writing in my classroom in two parts: -. ‘ . . -.
ast ·?;.. ‘- _-_‘. -. . . ‘
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n .ete t o V tssrss .t.lt.
-;_ fz ili I _ Marla Vfthoutkas has been teaching for l l .-_. ___-
’ .:f - three years. This is her second year at - _ ? --‘‘- --;
“ Berrl Primary School, where she teaches __ -- __.-. j
`· - "#’°¤‘°’” G’°°" '° "°·°’$ ***7- r
- -. l Murio worried to find out how she corrected-. ‘_‘—- gl E
_ . new her students responded to her _ " . ¤
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`_ . ‘
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lll- . ll I I __ _ .__ I _- _ _-
-_-' ·_ V‘-_ _ _. .._ _: ._ ‘ - i - -._--
introduction - __ - . _ . · - . — _.
`r._ __§fioture_th_is... r . _ . ` ‘ · . . - - . g?
- _e.‘ Yoo‘_re_ a student in a Year 3_!4.class_and §t's Monday morning. Your tlrst Greek lesson for t
--‘_ the week has begun.‘Y0u've strategically chosen to sit towards the becket the room near _ .f
._,e -_.seme_one_ tolgger and smarterywhere hopefuily you‘1l be out of the teachers direct yiew.
·___’ _ :_ZS‘Om9wh`er8..nSaf9M_ -. · H . .. · _ U U ·_ __`· U _` ._ __ `_
Qnly oooasionatly do you want the teacher to know you're there, _That‘s when your arm .- E
-__;§`§§___.-;$j‘;shootsyup §n_th_e‘ atrend you're frantically wavlng itgbaok and forth. Yotfre just dying to give _
right answer. Of course the teacher chooses _th_e_person next to you. Well; that's·it.for ‘ZQ ` ·
ontil, sore enough? the. _¤exz..qgues;1¤¤ has been kindly directed-to yout_You think _baok__ -.
-..;::to1¥the _t§rrt_e__when you once‘thou`gh_t you ttadmade a rnisteke. what embarrassment, anger _--.
gi-.; t__‘ artddisappolntmentl But w_alt, yon remember that you hedrrt made arnisteke after all?!_'?·_""_
·fg§§:Q;ijf?iWittt.a‘ee‘nseof rellet you gEve.yo1;r_enswer. Z. -· I -- ;·_ -- ` ‘.e· -‘ ‘ ._ e -- _ Q - ‘.·- y ‘‘-_
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1 1 ’ LIFT CASE STUDIES • 241
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_- 5_. Need for Error Correction :¤ild.li
--‘. -`_` ‘-_‘ · I `‘-._ .privat·
. -Z_- _ Att but two students thought I should correct their errors and could give reasons for this -. _ '_
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.'"‘ Z} Zit seemed-tha_t the children welcomed corrections and understood the need tor them, but ‘_ __·_` ‘;_·; :__ · ‘
·_--_‘ also recognised that making Jmistakes ooold be embarrassing it the teacher did not __i;5;ig `-i·-· · Q ._
§jrespond_sensltively.. They preferred me to indicate errors positively In ways that --,_ _·__ . 4 ·. __ .- ; __
fj" awknowledged their efforts and encouraged a further attempt. They also liked to be able to · __-- ·
iis -_-. work on error correction with their peers. l would now like to devise some sort of checklist :_; - ‘.‘_ A .
-~;s - - .. - - ,, . - _
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‘‘‘` ii-‘i‘`‘` ‘ ·‘·‘ D ‘‘i·`‘ D
)OENG TEACHER-RESEARCH: FROM INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING
. _ =-- .
’‘- ·

Having focused on how l correct l would like at some stage to investigate when I correct--’. i '-.·..;‘" _,-Q
{gg; and what l correct. l‘d also like to look at the effects of correcting students publicly étnndhn ‘ {Q-
` PTiVH¥9lY· ‘ - U ° ` _".` { I .·-'_ ZZ
- Conclusion ¤ ‘ ·_-` ?_1”;¤:
nn.] b9llt?V6 that my Dl"Oj9Cl WGS useful. F HOW have 8 list of possible corrggtion phrases J ‘``.. ..
joan continue to use in the future, phrases that don‘l make the children vrnt to crawl under,. __.‘ ‘ *
their desks and disappear. Action research makes you step back and look closely at what . -__r-
- youre doing in the classroom, and consider how you could change il end why- l believe ` -
· that at the moment you recognise a concern or issue in your teaching practice, and begin r -_‘_ _ _
_·_io acton it, you have already made progress. With continual effort, reflection and support, _ I · ‘
. regardless of anysuwey results, you‘ve actually made progress, _ ‘ · -.
what i liked most about being involved in this action research oroieci was that i couidi · _.‘.
·. determine my own aims, objectives and methods. and whatever the outcomes, it was my
choice as towhat l was going to do about it. As teachers we are all concerned about our ‘ ‘
_ stuolents' learning, but what about our own learning? Being involved in ._LIPT 3 was one oi .
_- - Lriygreatest and most valuable learning experiences. i - · ‘- ’ .g
. . · . Did You Say Something? ‘ --‘` Q
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- - LIPT Cast; Srumns ¤ 243
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- . LIPT Case STUDIES • 245
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I- II I -

`_i=ian ot_Action r f l - _' 2-_“
2 l1. Observation · _ i _-
ToG_answer._the_ first question i__ taped a lesson and analysed it. Something that became .2.22 .
‘` ‘ G` obvious by the and of the tape was my flair for negative comments! in a 40 minute lesson l 2
_ __ made nearly 20 negative remarks. To make sure this wasn't just the result ot an "ofi" day l-_ -2 -2 G _ -
`hadanother teacher observe a lesson. She noted down all the positive and negative Z 2 .
. comments l made. The results were similar. I was using far more negatives than positives; G. _ G "
-· .2 -G - 22- 2 -? 22j G2 .‘-- i 2`
` .2. _.QuesttonnaEre _ _ -
2 To answer the second question l handed out a questionnaire to the children asking a._ _
G 2 variety oi general. knowledge questions about Greece. The results showed that the children G _ -
believed Greeks were dark-skinned, dark·haired, wore flowing robes, spoke Egyptian and- 2 2
.2 ate snails _on a regular baslsl Obviously these children had little knowledge of Greece. - `-‘- gg _
2- 3. Action G 2 2 . _ .
lworked out a series ot lessons to be presented over a ten-week period. The focus would "_
[ _- be on culture, with an introduction to language. There would be two 40 minute lessons per ._ ¤¤!¤
‘--_ j2._t.ve`ek. -1 planned activities to teach greetings, numbers, directions. colours etc., and 2 -. _ -- _
organised group work assignments dealing with Greek food,.litestyIe and mythology. My -2 .2 SQ
al_m_was` to_`praise.each2 child twice by the and of each lesson, thus promoting a positive G2 `féji -.‘‘_ »
--22-tmo_sphere_._ G - _ _ _ 2 · - - 2 - gg; _- 2 ;
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·‘’· iNithin`-the 2first two_'week_s·tne_ children's response was amazing. They eagerly awaited- _ gee?
= eac_h’Greek_ lesson and participated enthusiastically. At the end of the ten-week-program l ` __G;.H_t§g`Y_?
‘_·_ 2Q -;- taped a _leGsson. l lriedto be as.natural__as possible and not let the tape influence my actions. - ; ---_ j ·GL _
-:‘._ Listening to the tape latr l-still heard some negative `commertis about childrens behaviour, .
‘‘-i but these-were tar outweighed bythe positive comments. What was even more interesting `G - illiti
`._` :_ was hearing some ot the children praisin and encouraging each otherl - _. .- 22¤ 2 - -_‘-._ ZEQZGZ.
‘·_· _.-. 2 -- - ` I .2 G- ` . _ .·`‘.
.__" lfgave-=the _gu_estion_naire to the-children again at-the end. ot the prograrn._They still - _ S€i_9ili
.G _·-_·· .3-dese_ribed_2Gree_k_ people .-as da_rk—halred and _o_live#skinned, but at least they now knewthat 2 2 ‘-2g_Z`2.jl3QQu
_‘‘-.`_ Greeks spoke Greek andrate ._scuvIakia l _i·also"_as_ked"the. children whether they would _ `SQQQE
prefer;to_..d_o__.German _cr Greek next year. Only one out of_the225_ opted_ lor·German,2 whichl ` _.__---..`_ result
.__. - i··.`· 2 fleltshowe_d2_that._they`had _eni_oyed-theGexposu_re2cot1rseand had ia positive attitude `to3_rds - ;_2 2 .-‘_ every;
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A ` LIPT CASE Srumss • 247
-·‘; -‘.-

U U U U U U ‘‘‘‘‘‘
[il that seemed to have become my norm, particutarly at Year 8. The .··. ja- '-__ I
_.cla_sses.vvoIuId cover essentially the same work, in essentially the same manner, and I ‘..-s _· I i
_.`coutd:compare.theirIperformance through various common exercises and tests. -- _ __.. ;-.j.Ig§ i
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i.?Y°??F"ii*.*‘?F$¥ I- I I I I I i I . I- I
-had_one.ia_rge reservation about the protect. Since our French modutes are _y _ l -
a_-_ elective, and the students invotved dtd not have to continue with the language, it wouldbe j t‘-_ jg _ 1
1 ,‘‘- easytor them tojputt out if they felt uncomtortabte with my approach. In order to ensure that . _·‘,_ ._ __
-··`_·_ e.had_:eno_ugh students torthe next ten-week module, and each module thereafter. I could - _ .‘-g _-_.
‘_`- — rrot·.Iaftord.to[alienate anyone; ln fact, l would be almlng to convince most ot those who I . . Ir
-`hadn_ft-felected .10 take the.fo1low—up units to do so. As a safety net, I therefore decided to . - -.·_ . t
E :__ ·; ·-atteImpt.tl3:eIprogran3IIn fortnightly blocks, checking our progress and the students' feeilngsII _
_alj·eut`the project went. along, . .- I .I ..
fftf. I faiu a fuuf I ffuu utufuc r tt., r I r I * I . r at
-‘t,..f‘._ lN¢.I`B§QinQI&i I' `-‘- I -'·- -- ·.i v
_=-' .‘'. _..', t _.._` xplnainlngithe-LIPET project to the students involved. To avoid. the implication- _ `· I
.§-`_ —_`,_ {that eneprsgs was Tbetter?. than the other, I told them that lwculd choose which one woutd - - - H
.gba.I·.the.__TFrench.IonIyf, ctass_._by.lllppi_ng_a coln. We discussed the possible advantages ot -_ .2
-‘._ {-Iwor_l5lng,.inI1DO`.% Erenoiyand the possible difficulties. Many students were concerned that . I· N
`l-- tt_wopid_b_e too hard, or thatthey wouldnt cope. I respected their tears. and assured them -- _I ·_‘. -_ S.
I;..II_tljat.we_v.§ould;keeIp__aI.check_on their progress. it they teittoo uncomfortable or I could see . 2. _ H
thatIone_ group_was.beihg disadvantagedby the program, then we would rethink the whole, _I .9
--.fe·.. :er¢?i¢ftL ‘·‘. ji.?-3*-II .- q I r”r_. r ·”,‘. c II ·_ - ‘‘‘.‘- -- - t I -I I II t t .. II I II II I I --.‘‘_i i It:
`ll. ll H I -3- ll - . I _ I _ _ U U I U I I I _ · _. -I { ll:
l r I I- I- I. l _--- l l 2 _- l - l - . l l _ . . _. -_. l
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____. ; _._.__ the ____ I;I_._1__5 ‘_-‘ course is_I:aI·hy_hrtd_of: vartcus.reso¤.;rces, designed as an lntroduct_o1y·unlt to tra
E·.._I§-;§F.§eI¤ol1Q.lan§uage, cult¤re.IIend customs. we cover basic-greetings, identifying onesett and -. -_ --_‘ W
gg; lg-gfgathers;Qasl·tlpg;for_._to§qd_an_d.tolglov4inIg_ directions: the basic survival stuftl-Tour de France is -$ ::·IZ: I·i¤‘
ri; =I- aq; _titQ¥B.·_§$£-{texi,IQ-bt1t_:=b$b€t1.ls6_?·! Idonft·greatly._1lke itsI=approac_h and many-·students rind it ·i‘. - -,.¥. .;-A
·r‘., j{.Z1-·_pdrtri_gj_f_t_Ireallyonlyuse,tt2asi.Ia.I.resot;rce_,-Zalongside otherexerclses, games and_hand—made__i-_ _ _ ...- q.-at
{QtII;-QQ·§;ib¢§.Q1$.lQi§5¥ $£¤`d.€§¤i$`.rt?:§ilk_§_Q_rQB.Ql{Bred write with the..`emphe`s_ie being on devel_oplng a grasp _j I ·_ -¤__ I _.·- --j_,.;,,
I;.gI.§;;QI.=i.;;Io.f_I;bIasioIZy.o.¢Ial9gglary_— and _-_. ord %.IrejcIogn1tion_. My. approach .. is similar. to_ _Festina I Lente, and I _ I .- -.;. [Q; ._· yré
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ifiroui iufiturr
rI.r
DOING TEAQHER-RESEARCH; FROM INQUIRY TO UNDERSTANDING o
IIII I I ’ I c

tnvvnh Good RBSU“S - -_
We all telt pretty impressed after our first attempts. The students were happy that we had__‘ZQ·_-
- 9 managed to speak so much-French, and that they had been able to follow my instructions __"_‘
Qil _ (hand signals are wonderful aids to understanding when you're stuck for words!). Theyi:-Z-‘ "__-·_- -‘
` were qulck to point out that I slipped into English to tell Gary not to swat the files with his ·_._-__ Q";
ruler, but accepted that I dld,_ at times, have to back up my Instructions with a few words in ‘
·.`Engllsh to a particular student with learning difficulties. Other than that, all seem_ed rosy. __`._
` There was an immediate need for extra vocabulary. We had covered simple Instructions
- -._such as *'Le Iavabo/les tolleftes, sl! vous pfaff", ln the flrst few weeks, but now we needed — - ·
additional words_ such as ”préf" (ready), ”commancez" (begin) and "aIIez" (go), not to -‘_‘ J
mention "Ne frappez pas les mouchesl" (don‘t swat the fllesi). Some ofthe class began tor ` ‘
complain about the number of extra words they had to cope with, but we persevered. _ ".__`
. .`i`· .‘_‘ -_‘..
_ _ But After the Sunshlnes. . ‘ ‘- g - 7 __ ._‘
1 . Wlthln a few days, however, the shlne began to wear off. Two ofthe boys ln the French only " .’·,
; ·` class (class A), were not participating much at all. They were reluctant to present their- · ._
1 conversational skits on stage. in contrast, the mixed language class (class B) were much -_
moreicooperative. This distinction became more apparent when we tried a song. The song . _-
‘-_--- rT'Je sufs stranger" ("i_ am a foreigner" - music pllfered from "She‘ll Be Coming 'round The `
_. ‘Mcun`tainY‘) was a real flop with the French only class. There was no interest amongst the ‘__‘_ i -
.-‘- _ `students, I sang alone. No such problems ln class B. Why the difference? l asked myself. ‘_ .
`_--. Both._classe_s had been fairly slmltar ln the first few weeks: wllllng to learn, cooperative, ‘- _
. seemlngjo enjoy therrlseIves._Now there was tar more fldgeting and dlsruptlve behaviour 2 _
i.·j:_.in classla than in class__t3. _ _ ‘ ; _ ; [ _ ‘ - . - ‘ ___. _ ‘_
F -{-W6':‘dl_SGuS_sed_thB program., and the-commitment that they and l had made. Several) ‘_]
...‘._ studentswere fee_ling.‘threatened, becausethey dldn't know enough_ French to say a lot. -
..That_provoked agood dlscu`ssion.about what It was like to live In a country where.ycur`V _
__.`` Zia_ngu_age.wasnTt spoken`an_da_we.agreed to keep trying. I tried to expect a little less, and _·_. _ _`
‘__‘ .‘_w`0_rka‘_llttle rnore.slewly,,even.if it meant that`the_wro classes diverged content-wise, - _ g ;g
_;"_After a-"day's breaktor F'te_Ilgiou_s_ Education, which used up both Year 8 lessons, class _‘`. ‘_. .··_ :·
--‘· ?‘1?·:; $¢t`é.m¤¤.i¤"_¤¤`·heenieré .L¤SS¤¤S‘w¤re r¤.¤r¤ ¤r¤_¤¤¢tive.·i¤ss‘¤lSr¤r>tivr>- .¤¤‘.fa<=t.‘¤c·th classes i-,i I lt;iéjiiylivers.-bé`¢k twat-‘nar» ‘··· lt_,ua$_.b_e.ceml¤e obvioust_¤?r¤¤._.h¢wever.‘ thatth¤]s¤¤rS¤._-wa_sn‘fY? -.-l gijlt5;;.;-l_af_-l_enldirlgitself to;le.rl_iaill_Eren_ch ‘’‘‘` a pproach, _`-_ Forja startftranslallons require the use of English. _._` z ._.’ .‘.` H Bd,-\r'ii}iBiU.‘?W9_.$,_i£i9d qrl_e‘t¤oetner ltseemed_out_ ¤r__uiiler_w1rn o‘uilipproa¤n_‘tllqs_rar messes-A;_ A _l_,_._< — _ .i;_*i§i;22§..?I..¥l-el.$si.re¤tl$e¢l.. t.hstlt.h.¤ __?TF¤e`i1St¤r¤S"’sé¤ti¤n ..whlch .l·ie=S`.`¤¤‘mi¤e `un.`rv<>ui¤ .lr$,¤ .dlItlf>ult ¤ - -.
-._?Q¥l.`-Qillilfttiv -,ilij_,Fré¤_¢h, The `r¢?Sl>u`r¢t¢>’_lil_¤t>_k iiaéli was in E netsw; and .l `weurqhft have time l
.`-i-i €·Tj*·i¥¤‘=l’§‘QfJ`ii¥€,‘if-`__BYi;lhB._.Sam§;"l€lke`¥i.Q _`.- {Mas.-loathe. l0g$erap`the.-course, becaus_eSl_t hadbeen _¥;_`; __-· `¤’_-F
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-i.i`· 9°*llmP.“*93.U9F¥.`l$.t€l.i'$`QUQ. =f. ari ·`.. undéréwidlhe nf `esliests ¤tia¤§.th¢.r:¤ult¤ré-‘iwes"!‘ihri>wiri¤`
·-`‘-. iii‘y·£¤_`¤.l¤r`éli _’l. i.¤t¤.1iii:éiTf1s>rr .h.éré5 ton the ‘`‘_ san;¤r;xni¤..,rir¢Se‘¤r¢¤ `fnrcisctt _.,-l Ti1él.lNé1$` féiilnitii -·`·- Zic-Q?;T
.¤f,a ¤¢,; e.¢eillfi!ill9f‘.iti¤ ist-i -¤.‘ l?re¤l<.$i·.· I. iellhil 1il?ht—.L¤¤hvi>`rS¤li¢n¤l iw¤rlll.ilii..`§ilt iltélli ...‘_t seilt·.é‘.Ti¤e.litla$l.lie·v‘ -t,.. l TQ _,_‘ ¤lVltilllt$.. ri=riC.i.il-
t..Fte_¤$>ii.·f9.ri.¤l.¤$${iii-viiii¢hi`t¤.ée.¤t1.hat`it-t¢=i.t¤.irri< a‘;l.f=.·.-. iii t ?;?i_i.ll$lF9'?'¢§‘.I_¤?i'UY=Y@PPFQ€9U .·.‘` l.ii¤_’·`él.tir.<—>i--3.i>.lrlts`:si%j;lfr-.g¤‘ti¤sté:Q§i;`€ ¤‘;- sill .·i··
=.i itil.-{.¤f&:>_l?r¤`ri‘¢l§ij.i’i§ilsl_einsi.ériili-`ifcriitllreL;)-2th`e3.*neledhbji‘._iv¤.rltQ¤1EiQi-iLtifij-·
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LIPT CASE STUDIES • 249
‘ .i-- -‘·-, -·-.l·.·

or rrrr T lV-,-- FV — V Vfrt g rrrrrr V
_Tl1e_Hesults Qome tn... -V g
..-‘ V_ ‘_ - Z _‘ V _ _‘ Q
_._- _ To topi it Votl, t_he studVe_nts' results for exercises and tests after a fortnight indicated no¤ r V
·- `‘’_ d5_tferen_ce.behMe`en the classes an their fluency or basic language skltls. I realised thatl . ‘
couldjnot rgazgy expect to observe any significant dllterences In language development: -___‘
" betv.iee_nV_ the two groups atter such a short time. However, it the results test-wise were the VQ V 3 _‘·_·
“-{same,-=_.weraQweVfgaining anything from our efforts? The first Section Test covering. `
-V jyiocabulary grasp, comprehension and abltlty to hold a simple conversation gave the -V jig V-
»_·_ gii ";‘`. folllowing averagemarks out ot 35: ` VV V - -`... 5,,-
`.‘. V` an R I '·.` ·..'-- ; I " ° `V V V` ` -`'` :.- -‘
·.·;—;‘i V .s..i‘ 1; _-‘._‘ » V { @*-*88 A 24-7 - - - V‘
; =-‘ it V -. " " 1 ‘ ‘ ‘ Sit
-_`. I .l-` If theref_wasV_t0 be any signillcant gain from the increased use of French, I had expected it to -_.’ V .
‘- Vb,e‘_i_n‘_e`ral traency and grasp of vocabulary. The results ot an oral homework exercise (see ‘ _ V
giappendix 2) sVhould__have been enlightening in this regard. l had given the students a week V
1QVVtape,_j_aVnd translate a passage based on the work we had been doing in class. The . V _ 1
‘ ,‘g‘ results; Vogt ot atpossible total of 30 marks, were as follows. _ _ _‘ ‘ ‘ Q
i.‘» ji ·._‘· ?- .-·‘· -i· .p._ V1Vi.1.VV‘ -.i—·.;-· E - V V · V . ` V ` V - ‘
r.`’ -_-..‘_ 9 ---` 1; ‘..‘_‘..a .¤‘V-AVERAGE Fon V. _rvtAar< AS AVERAGE Fon - -_ - · VV .V —_j _·_- V _‘·-_¤;- _._¤_.‘ ‘ __‘‘ ‘_VVVV‘_=rI4_QsEVPaEsErrTep V_ _ WHOLE cuss V _V V ‘ - - . -V ‘V · V 1; -i.,-‘ »·-i- r r.r-· V »: .r.‘ .r‘r--·_ VV I V ·· M V V T V -V .- V V V I V - _.·V guess-za--·V2VVV _·VV 1 --19.8 V V V ‘ V tea V - . - - V _ _ _:V ‘.---; j .QL§°sSVS..Bi ‘’V. .‘‘V V`‘. l9V4 ’ ` ·V V‘ V 17-4. . ‘ ‘ ‘--‘`. V · . V- .-‘» `i—fVV?;"Vj;.VZ .V‘iVV ifi ``V. .‘.‘ " ‘ ` . -` ‘ ’ V ‘ ` ‘ V -V ‘ * - ‘ V - V V ‘ ‘ V‘-=V.`i iV—`- ; .’-_ . _- ‘ _ V V _ V ` V . ` I V lg -_ - r` " -VV -V ` 2 V l. _ 1 -` .-_- V- l- :‘ ` _`--- .V =-_ E -=--`Vl‘ `‘`..=` *ZfV¥¥‘VV .‘-.’_‘ ‘ . VV = .VVV i` ` “ ;-` ‘ . V" - 9 --: 1 V .```‘ .__.; `VVVV;j-TheVV-iresuIts.;Vwe_re__dIsappolntEng,VVtoVsay the Vleast. Although the hig_hest.marks forums V __.-. ._ Vi‘_ 2 -.·_ f V_s;gr¢:s_qV.Vna·q bae¥t.f0_r_ students in class A, so had the lowest. _AIthough on average students M `_,‘‘ _-._`_-‘ j-{Vin:class_z=lttVhadVscore_d rnarginallyVhigher,"the number otstudents who d_Idn‘t bother to hand V - ``_`- V V_V_‘‘‘·.‘ Vin tn-e_lsxsrciseV·was `alsohlgher.`1 · `VV‘ _. ..V.. .V ` N 3 -` H x ..‘- _i_V .:4*: __.: - ‘_.·`‘ ;.:‘V_ _ _C ` _ -'_r` .` . `V'. _ - .- -_ _._. _. . V_ ._.- .V V. V _ VV` tn_j.1Vgact;¥;Vipere -was-aV`cotlnize_ citmrqnce-V_tn ‘VattlVtqueV emerging-3pstviicsn_j‘__tno :w¤VV_q1ass¤s._:V_j ‘ ji -V‘i 2 VVVV --"__‘.r ‘I=. El§§§3i§pg`V;thei_;surveyfcarrled out at the startVof the course after_ahoutVthree_i weeks showed V_ g§¤;-Vg ·__.-V_ ‘._ -V.-¥ `¢-¥?`I¥?`¥éi€.VVflt€t=§§ltt¤FftDIS.V`lll‘9l§.$SVA' lQl¥.VVF6$5"¤V¤F¤l¤¤¤¤¥¤‘V‘¤¤d .w6r6 tumllle ;Q*l_V{!VVh3‘¤-;¤¤l!¢¢Vd Villrtfj F -` VV .-V-‘ r at-as?V`<:”?tl??i.l1.QVtl£i`¤iltVéV:;VS¤l3’¤ll*l.i`f.$¤ti§F ¤¥`V¤?€! V*¤*¤¤ti*iV¤`9FV Ute l*t<$lVlh¤Y had F*¢¢i¤¤¤Vl{l°¥.-l¤V‘V9¤¤ll¤¤¤`CVW¥lh ` i ‘-.` Ere¤§hf;`VértdiihfsrsVwilltte-.¤V¤l :.` vit?hV¤‘¤9V¥t‘:r¤¤d¤!eVV:ln cl@SSVB:.tho.;-$iVtuall¤¤§.Ws$;Vré=~?¤.rssdr -‘‘.V‘;‘ -V_.’ ?§§§?éQri§.éV&raiV:;V.$fti¢1s.i}1$¥`who V naun¥t*orlQi¤HlV¥Y;`chosentoV;continuewith‘fVtheZVVnZe>it"’module how _‘Vl félt‘.`.··· ·‘·.- ZY ‘`VV i ‘-VV
EgTé.e?V;Er?2é¤*§theY‘it*riifuldV‘t1k¤i"t6.`¥’ _``VV Q. I V=.`‘‘: FVLV?. ‘.:_ - _’..‘.V‘` V.`:.- - F`- r · L ‘: V..-‘‘-VV- €¤--‘i ·VVl r »‘.-- ‘-‘V. VV.`‘‘ V -5 `--- Ii`.€’$.’¤.--:;=i=’-;;ViVV;:é;-.‘§ .-V-= >¥- -ii;-f;‘ V‘ -V`V V
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DOING TEAcHER—REsEARcH: FROM INQUIRY TO UNDEESTANDING .

Vrc VVV V r V I- T

‘‘-‘ -0** R€i'°¤i'°F‘ r .- S'-; ”. ·
- Perhaps our situation at Balakiava High is unique, In that our students can opt
_ v French course every ten weeks. This makes their feellng of security and sef—confiden`ce‘:.j.f__ri¢-;_"
Qg§§ _ paramount. The students ciearty felt rnuchmore comfortable with a mixture of French_and_`;__ig*§:¤;
;e· g "Engltsh in the classroom. They felt more in control, and I felt happier with that. My insttncts·i5·je_=Z_.j-.
had atwsys led me use such a mixture, with the aim of increasing the use of French:.f_cr__; *
instructions and s_o forth as time progressed. ` _ · - U _ -;;‘___y_j _-r
_ - what, then, did 1 learn from all this? i guess, overall. 1 learnt once again that I shouid t_rust.y§_.j‘i;
;; myinstincts, my own iudgement and my experience to determine what works for rnein the ‘_.ie g_ ·
` classroom. l have always teit that, as a partner in the teaming exercise, t need to_;t>e,j =i-n‘
fig sens_i_tive to the group's needs and feelings. Hopefully, as a successful teacher, l harness _‘t_`‘ ‘
· · that empathy, and use it to match course content and teaching methodology to the tearnerst _-.·‘‘_ ·-
needs and interests. What works for one teacher with one class ln one school does not ‘ ;y
_.r_ -` work forf others in other situations, nor does It work In the same school for different classes,
_rr¤m_yssr_te year. - ; ; ‘ -; _ · _ · 1;;; __-, s .i;
-_`-__ i|=qr-urns, with these classes, in this yeari a mixture of French and Engilsh was the mo`st;:_`; ''r_`.
effective way for_ them to learn. fi wilt continue to elm to increase the use of French, with-‘· [
--those_·studen_ts who continue to progress through the course, but oniy; by_ Instinct. tgwill;.
.- _ i-.ccntinue.to try different things, remembering what works and what doesn't, and add them to _ _ -
amy repe_rtoire...;but,‘overall, t have to ensure that the students feel secure and happy. lft. _> -
·‘ .don't achieve that, there wilt be no course, and no learning. as -‘ ._ -_ _ -; ·.·- .
_; ·.,”_ ‘.‘· gi _--_ ; y e _° ;- y . . i -?- g ._.‘ .-‘-·. r
ii?-`··‘;-=JTh¢e.iF¤?¤'¢" .·`` -_ .` ‘ ` ; ‘‘`. { _ ` ; r ` ; -__‘ · `,``_·_ l
-_-_.i_ interesting _to note-that, as'_a_Iw'ay$. the project generated other.-changeslto .._- ._-.` f-
te_aoh_ing.;;chang_es that were not partof the original plan. As t came to reallse·once.agaln _‘--‘ I
.‘__r jj?-5 `jthatjl have to tutiy trust my own_ju_dgement in teaching, I gained the ccntidence‘to atte_mpt_; i __
- _·‘_.‘r Z e something _l'ye wanted to do for years. l HATE the Tour de France. course;and_aiways.te1t_ it
‘;·needed._too_rnuch_suppleme_ntatio_n to keep students motivated. So, talting the;butt_by[;the _=:_- _
5; .__-. ·ho,rns‘,_ l._offe_red bothrny Year`8 and _Year;9!1 0 combination classes the opportunityto throw j giz-
._`-·-_‘` ; -_i away the`}-_text_ book and-choosejthemes tor studysbynegotiatlon. lt_ means a_ tot more`work’.’
- ==_t9.i_.¤T·¢._;‘e¤¤;_ti_m_e spent finding rnaterief and p_repart_ng_ new wc_rkshe;ets,eout_tt·s_psyl¤gjsn,t_n = ._-l
__-- _-;;;l;-`§ththu_siasm._ B_oth_.classes say- th_ey.are;enjoylng lessons more. ;afi_d_an increased, number ;· ; ,_.
_·.‘. i_.tft¤l-ltd-¤_|i}$Q -_e- to-;<>¤n,ll¤li¢ withFf§¤¤tl.·next·ye;ar; _E¤r`the survivai._of_the subietzt.;th·3;i:$6.éltt$_·Q ‘..i E-{E
i_-i, ;; _‘.‘` ‘_-.j`-.Y,Fl§FQ._`¥N¤t?»;‘tf. I `¢¤`QE£1_j,lJ$t convince the Siaif:_t$> make,the_first ten weeks.0f_French _cornpuleo_ry,; __., Z; [-2;
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.—.·Q ‘Q-QQQ §9¤1é¤Q¥a-3%mZ@©12$Q¤*@Q-A¤¢ré£Qel-Q—*’@i‘1@i¢¤-MS-.¤'¥~#=bi¤¢-Qé-QP¥¤¤ryQ‘Qé¤.AvS¤¤¤lF¤.-Je-$QsaF$.@¤¤¢Qr¤¤i¤Qn{¤e}- $€>.¤¤·Q-QQ-Q Q·Q- L.
E-§?¥`€i:éi?;'E-U§§¥PEiiV9?-§@éY?U§.Q5I@$ QQ.i *¤i*%§¤*$xQ¤9a7?Q·QV9*¢¥ m9¤.]¤r·%i. Mi¢h¤Q¥-II.! 5 `dcviééiws:QI1QQ¤$¤Q¤¤¤¢~¤i¤¤;Q; II .¤Qa¤i¢é‘Q¤QQI¤r9nto_»-; --;Q-- ‘ :- ;;Q { _ Cari]
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!58 • Dome TEACHER—RESEARCH: Faoin Imoumv TO Umosnsrawnmo ‘




Doing Teacher Research [form inquiry to unerstanding]{Donald Freeman} (ตอนที่ 1)
Doing Teacher Research [form inquiry to unerstanding]{Donald Freeman} (ตอนที่ 2)

ตอนที่ 2